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diff --git a/gcc-4.4.3/libstdc++-v3/doc/html/manual/test.html b/gcc-4.4.3/libstdc++-v3/doc/html/manual/test.html deleted file mode 100644 index aa5e0e3b1..000000000 --- a/gcc-4.4.3/libstdc++-v3/doc/html/manual/test.html +++ /dev/null @@ -1,489 +0,0 @@ -<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /><title>Test</title><meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.74.0" /><meta name="keywords" content=" ISO C++ , test , testsuite , performance , conformance , ABI , exception safety " /><meta name="keywords" content=" ISO C++ , library " /><link rel="home" href="../spine.html" title="The GNU C++ Library Documentation" /><link rel="up" href="setup.html" title="Chapter 2. Setup" /><link rel="prev" href="make.html" title="Make" /><link rel="next" href="using.html" title="Chapter 3. Using" /></head><body><div class="navheader"><table width="100%" summary="Navigation header"><tr><th colspan="3" align="center">Test</th></tr><tr><td width="20%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="make.html">Prev</a> </td><th width="60%" align="center">Chapter 2. Setup</th><td width="20%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="using.html">Next</a></td></tr></table><hr /></div><div class="sect1" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a id="manual.intro.setup.test"></a>Test</h2></div></div></div><p> -The libstdc++ testsuite includes testing for standard conformance, -regressions, ABI, and performance. -</p><div class="sect2" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="test.organization"></a>Organization</h3></div></div></div><div class="sect3" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title"><a id="test.organization.layout"></a>Directory Layout</h4></div></div></div><p> - The directory <span class="emphasis"><em>libsrcdir/testsuite</em></span> contains the - individual test cases organized in sub-directories corresponding to - chapters of the C++ standard (detailed below), the dejagnu test - harness support files, and sources to various testsuite utilities - that are packaged in a separate testing library. -</p><p> - All test cases for functionality required by the runtime components - of the C++ standard (ISO 14882) are files within the following - directories. -</p><pre class="programlisting"> -17_intro -18_support -19_diagnostics -20_util -21_strings -22_locale -23_containers -25_algorithms -26_numerics -27_io - </pre><p> - In addition, the following directories include test files: - </p><pre class="programlisting"> -tr1 Tests for components as described by the Technical Report on Standard Library Extensions (TR1). -backward Tests for backwards compatibility and deprecated features. -demangle Tests for __cxa_demangle, the IA 64 C++ ABI demangler -ext Tests for extensions. -performance Tests for performance analysis, and performance regressions. -thread Tests for threads. - </pre><p> - Some directories don't have test files, but instead contain - auxiliary information (<a class="ulink" href="#internals" target="_top">more information</a>): - </p><pre class="programlisting"> -config Files for the dejagnu test harness. -lib Files for the dejagnu test harness. -libstdc++* Files for the dejagnu test harness. -data Sample text files for testing input and output. -util Files for libtestc++, utilities and testing routines. - </pre><p> - Within a directory that includes test files, there may be - additional subdirectories, or files. Originally, test cases - were appended to one file that represented a particular section - of the chapter under test, and was named accordingly. For - instance, to test items related to <code class="code"> 21.3.6.1 - - basic_string::find [lib.string::find]</code> in the standard, - the following was used: - </p><pre class="programlisting"> -21_strings/find.cc - </pre><p> - However, that practice soon became a liability as the test cases - became huge and unwieldy, and testing new or extended - functionality (like wide characters or named locales) became - frustrating, leading to aggressive pruning of test cases on some - platforms that covered up implementation errors. Now, the test - suite has a policy of one file, one test case, which solves the - above issues and gives finer grained results and more manageable - error debugging. As an example, the test case quoted above - becomes: - </p><pre class="programlisting"> -21_strings/basic_string/find/char/1.cc -21_strings/basic_string/find/char/2.cc -21_strings/basic_string/find/char/3.cc -21_strings/basic_string/find/wchar_t/1.cc -21_strings/basic_string/find/wchar_t/2.cc -21_strings/basic_string/find/wchar_t/3.cc - </pre><p> - All new tests should be written with the policy of one test - case, one file in mind. - </p></div><div class="sect3" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title"><a id="test.organization.naming"></a>Naming Conventions</h4></div></div></div><p> - In addition, there are some special names and suffixes that are - used within the testsuite to designate particular kinds of - tests. - </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul type="disc"><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>_xin.cc</em></span> - </p><p> - This test case expects some kind of interactive input in order - to finish or pass. At the moment, the interactive tests are not - run by default. Instead, they are run by hand, like: - </p><pre class="programlisting"> -g++ 27_io/objects/char/3_xin.cc -cat 27_io/objects/char/3_xin.in | a.out - </pre></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>.in</em></span> - </p><p> - This file contains the expected input for the corresponding <span class="emphasis"><em> - _xin.cc</em></span> test case. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>_neg.cc</em></span> - </p><p> - This test case is expected to fail: it's a negative test. At the - moment, these are almost always compile time errors. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>char</em></span> - </p><p> - This can either be a directory name or part of a longer file - name, and indicates that this file, or the files within this - directory are testing the <code class="code">char</code> instantiation of a - template. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>wchar_t</em></span> - </p><p> - This can either be a directory name or part of a longer file - name, and indicates that this file, or the files within this - directory are testing the <code class="code">wchar_t</code> instantiation of - a template. Some hosts do not support <code class="code">wchar_t</code> - functionality, so for these targets, all of these tests will not - be run. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>thread</em></span> - </p><p> - This can either be a directory name or part of a longer file - name, and indicates that this file, or the files within this - directory are testing situations where multiple threads are - being used. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>performance</em></span> - </p><p> - This can either be an enclosing directory name or part of a - specific file name. This indicates a test that is used to - analyze runtime performance, for performance regression testing, - or for other optimization related analysis. At the moment, these - test cases are not run by default. - </p></li></ul></div></div></div><div class="sect2" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="test.run"></a>Running the Testsuite</h3></div></div></div><div class="sect3" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title"><a id="test.run.basic"></a>Basic</h4></div></div></div><p> - You can check the status of the build without installing it - using the dejagnu harness, much like the rest of the gcc - tools.</p><pre class="programlisting"> make check</pre><p>in the <span class="emphasis"><em>libbuilddir</em></span> directory.</p><p>or</p><pre class="programlisting"> make check-target-libstdc++-v3</pre><p>in the <span class="emphasis"><em>gccbuilddir</em></span> directory. - </p><p> - These commands are functionally equivalent and will create a - 'testsuite' directory underneath - <span class="emphasis"><em>libbuilddir</em></span> containing the results of the - tests. Two results files will be generated: <span class="emphasis"><em> - libstdc++.sum</em></span>, which is a PASS/FAIL summary for each - test, and <span class="emphasis"><em>libstdc++.log</em></span> which is a log of - the exact command line passed to the compiler, the compiler - output, and the executable output (if any). - </p><p> - Archives of test results for various versions and platforms are - available on the GCC website in the <a class="ulink" href="http://gcc.gnu.org/gcc-4.3/buildstat.html" target="_top">build - status</a> section of each individual release, and are also - archived on a daily basis on the <a class="ulink" href="http://gcc.gnu.org/ml/gcc-testresults/current" target="_top">gcc-testresults</a> - mailing list. Please check either of these places for a similar - combination of source version, operating system, and host CPU. - </p></div><div class="sect3" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title"><a id="test.run.variations"></a>Variations</h4></div></div></div><p> - There are several options for running tests, including testing - the regression tests, testing a subset of the regression tests, - testing the performance tests, testing just compilation, testing - installed tools, etc. In addition, there is a special rule for - checking the exported symbols of the shared library. - </p><p> - To debug the dejagnu test harness during runs, try invoking with a - specific argument to the variable RUNTESTFLAGS, as below. - </p><pre class="programlisting"> -make check-target-libstdc++-v3 RUNTESTFLAGS="-v" -</pre><p> - or - </p><pre class="programlisting"> -make check-target-libstdc++-v3 RUNTESTFLAGS="-v -v" -</pre><p> - To run a subset of the library tests, you will need to generate - the <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_files</em></span> file by running - <span class="command"><strong>make testsuite_files</strong></span> in the - <span class="emphasis"><em>libbuilddir/testsuite</em></span> directory, described - below. Edit the file to remove the tests you don't want and - then run the testsuite as normal. - </p><p> - There are two ways to run on a simulator: set up DEJAGNU to point to a - specially crafted site.exp, or pass down --target_board flags. - </p><p> - Example flags to pass down for various embedded builds are as follows: - </p><pre class="programlisting"> - --target=powerpc-eabism (libgloss/sim) -make check-target-libstdc++-v3 RUNTESTFLAGS="--target_board=powerpc-sim" - ---target=calmrisc32 (libgloss/sid) -make check-target-libstdc++-v3 RUNTESTFLAGS="--target_board=calmrisc32-sid" - ---target=xscale-elf (newlib/sim) -make check-target-libstdc++-v3 RUNTESTFLAGS="--target_board=arm-sim" -</pre><p> - Also, here is an example of how to run the libstdc++ testsuite - for a multilibed build directory with different ABI settings: - </p><pre class="programlisting"> -make check-target-libstdc++-v3 RUNTESTFLAGS='--target_board \"unix{-mabi=32,,-mabi=64}\"' -</pre><p> - You can run the tests with a compiler and library that have - already been installed. Make sure that the compiler (e.g., - <code class="code">g++</code>) is in your <code class="code">PATH</code>. If you are - using shared libraries, then you must also ensure that the - directory containing the shared version of libstdc++ is in your - <code class="code">LD_LIBRARY_PATH</code>, or equivalent. If your GCC source - tree is at <code class="code">/path/to/gcc</code>, then you can run the tests - as follows: - </p><pre class="programlisting"> -runtest --tool libstdc++ --srcdir=/path/to/gcc/libstdc++-v3/testsuite -</pre><p> - The testsuite will create a number of files in the directory in - which you run this command,. Some of those files might use the - same name as files created by other testsuites (like the ones - for GCC and G++), so you should not try to run all the - testsuites in parallel from the same directory. - </p><p> - In addition, there are some testing options that are mostly of - interest to library maintainers and system integrators. As such, - these tests may not work on all cpu and host combinations, and - may need to be executed in the - <span class="emphasis"><em>libbuilddir/testsuite</em></span> directory. These - options include, but are not necessarily limited to, the - following: - </p><pre class="programlisting"> - make testsuite_files - </pre><p> - Five files are generated that determine what test files - are run. These files are: - </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul type="disc"><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_files</em></span> - </p><p> - This is a list of all the test cases that will be run. Each - test case is on a separate line, given with an absolute path - from the <span class="emphasis"><em>libsrcdir/testsuite</em></span> directory. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_files_interactive</em></span> - </p><p> - This is a list of all the interactive test cases, using the - same format as the file list above. These tests are not run - by default. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_files_performance</em></span> - </p><p> - This is a list of all the performance test cases, using the - same format as the file list above. These tests are not run - by default. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_thread</em></span> - </p><p> - This file indicates that the host system can run tests which - involved multiple threads. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_wchar_t</em></span> - </p><p> - This file indicates that the host system can run the wchar_t - tests, and corresponds to the macro definition <code class="code"> - _GLIBCXX_USE_WCHAR_T</code> in the file c++config.h. - </p></li></ul></div><pre class="programlisting"> - make check-abi - </pre><p> - The library ABI can be tested. This involves testing the shared - library against an ABI-defining previous version of symbol - exports. - </p><pre class="programlisting"> - make check-compile - </pre><p> - This rule compiles, but does not link or execute, the - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_files</em></span> test cases and displays the - output on stdout. - </p><pre class="programlisting"> - make check-performance - </pre><p> - This rule runs through the - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_files_performance</em></span> test cases and - collects information for performance analysis and can be used to - spot performance regressions. Various timing information is - collected, as well as number of hard page faults, and memory - used. This is not run by default, and the implementation is in - flux. - </p><p> - We are interested in any strange failures of the testsuite; - please email the main libstdc++ mailing list if you see - something odd or have questions. - </p></div><div class="sect3" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title"><a id="test.run.permutations"></a>Permutations</h4></div></div></div><p> - To run the libstdc++ test suite under the <a class="link" href="debug_mode.html" title="Chapter 30. Debug Mode">debug mode</a>, edit - <code class="filename">libstdc++-v3/scripts/testsuite_flags</code> to add the - compile-time flag <code class="constant">-D_GLIBCXX_DEBUG</code> to the - result printed by the <code class="literal">--build-cxx</code> - option. Additionally, add the - <code class="constant">-D_GLIBCXX_DEBUG_PEDANTIC</code> flag to turn on - pedantic checking. The libstdc++ test suite should produce - precisely the same results under debug mode that it does under - release mode: any deviation indicates an error in either the - library or the test suite. - </p><p> - The <a class="link" href="parallel_mode.html" title="Chapter 31. Parallel Mode">parallel - mode</a> can be tested in much the same manner, substituting - <code class="constant">-D_GLIBCXX_PARALLEL</code> for - <code class="constant">-D_GLIBCXX_DEBUG</code> in the previous paragraph. - </p><p> - Or, just run the testsuites with <code class="constant">CXXFLAGS</code> - set to <code class="constant">-D_GLIBCXX_DEBUG</code> or - <code class="constant">-D_GLIBCXX_PARALLEL</code>. - </p></div></div><div class="sect2" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="test.new_tests"></a>Writing a new test case</h3></div></div></div><p> - The first step in making a new test case is to choose the correct - directory and file name, given the organization as previously - described. - </p><p> - All files are copyright the FSF, and GPL'd: this is very - important. The first copyright year should correspond to the date - the file was checked in to SVN. - </p><p> - As per the dejagnu instructions, always return 0 from main to - indicate success. - </p><p> - A bunch of utility functions and classes have already been - abstracted out into the testsuite utility library, <code class="code"> - libtestc++</code>. To use this functionality, just include the - appropriate header file: the library or specific object files will - automatically be linked in as part of the testsuite run. - </p><p> - For a test that needs to take advantage of the dejagnu test - harness, what follows below is a list of special keyword that - harness uses. Basically, a test case contains dg-keywords (see - dg.exp) indicating what to do and what kinds of behavior are to be - expected. New test cases should be written with the new style - DejaGnu framework in mind. - </p><p> - To ease transition, here is the list of dg-keyword documentation - lifted from dg.exp. - </p><pre class="programlisting"> -# The currently supported options are: -# -# dg-prms-id N -# set prms_id to N -# -# dg-options "options ..." [{ target selector }] -# specify special options to pass to the tool (eg: compiler) -# -# dg-do do-what-keyword [{ target/xfail selector }] -# `do-what-keyword' is tool specific and is passed unchanged to -# ${tool}-dg-test. An example is gcc where `keyword' can be any of: -# preprocess|compile|assemble|link|run -# and will do one of: produce a .i, produce a .s, produce a .o, -# produce an a.out, or produce an a.out and run it (the default is -# compile). -# -# dg-error regexp comment [{ target/xfail selector } [{.|0|linenum}]] -# indicate an error message <regexp> is expected on this line -# (the test fails if it doesn't occur) -# Linenum=0 for general tool messages (eg: -V arg missing). -# "." means the current line. -# -# dg-warning regexp comment [{ target/xfail selector } [{.|0|linenum}]] -# indicate a warning message <regexp> is expected on this line -# (the test fails if it doesn't occur) -# -# dg-bogus regexp comment [{ target/xfail selector } [{.|0|linenum}]] -# indicate a bogus error message <regexp> use to occur here -# (the test fails if it does occur) -# -# dg-build regexp comment [{ target/xfail selector }] -# indicate the build use to fail for some reason -# (errors covered here include bad assembler generated, tool crashes, -# and link failures) -# (the test fails if it does occur) -# -# dg-excess-errors comment [{ target/xfail selector }] -# indicate excess errors are expected (any line) -# (this should only be used sparingly and temporarily) -# -# dg-output regexp [{ target selector }] -# indicate the expected output of the program is <regexp> -# (there may be multiple occurrences of this, they are concatenated) -# -# dg-final { tcl code } -# add some tcl code to be run at the end -# (there may be multiple occurrences of this, they are concatenated) -# (unbalanced braces must be \-escaped) -# -# "{ target selector }" is a list of expressions that determine whether the -# test succeeds or fails for a particular target, or in some cases whether the -# option applies for a particular target. If the case of `dg-do' it specifies -# whether the test case is even attempted on the specified target. -# -# The target selector is always optional. The format is one of: -# -# { xfail *-*-* ... } - the test is expected to fail for the given targets -# { target *-*-* ... } - the option only applies to the given targets -# -# At least one target must be specified, use *-*-* for "all targets". -# At present it is not possible to specify both `xfail' and `target'. -# "native" may be used in place of "*-*-*". - -Example 1: Testing compilation only -// { dg-do compile } - -Example 2: Testing for expected warnings on line 36, which all targets fail -// { dg-warning "string literals" "" { xfail *-*-* } 36 - -Example 3: Testing for expected warnings on line 36 -// { dg-warning "string literals" "" { target *-*-* } 36 - -Example 4: Testing for compilation errors on line 41 -// { dg-do compile } -// { dg-error "no match for" "" { target *-*-* } 41 } - -Example 5: Testing with special command line settings, or without the -use of pre-compiled headers, in particular the stdc++.h.gch file. Any -options here will override the DEFAULT_CXXFLAGS and PCH_CXXFLAGS set -up in the normal.exp file. -// { dg-options "-O0" { target *-*-* } } -</pre><p> - More examples can be found in the libstdc++-v3/testsuite/*/*.cc files. - </p></div><div class="sect2" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a id="test.harness"></a>Test Harness and Utilities</h3></div></div></div><div class="sect3" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title"><a id="test.harness.dejagnu"></a>Dejagnu Harness Details</h4></div></div></div><p> - Underlying details of testing for conformance and regressions are - abstracted via the GNU Dejagnu package. This is similar to the - rest of GCC. - </p><p>This is information for those looking at making changes to the testsuite -structure, and/or needing to trace dejagnu's actions with --verbose. This -will not be useful to people who are "merely" adding new tests to the existing -structure. -</p><p>The first key point when working with dejagnu is the idea of a "tool". -Files, directories, and functions are all implicitly used when they are -named after the tool in use. Here, the tool will always be "libstdc++". -</p><p>The <code class="code">lib</code> subdir contains support routines. The -<code class="code">lib/libstdc++.exp</code> file ("support library") is loaded -automagically, and must explicitly load the others. For example, files can -be copied from the core compiler's support directory into <code class="code">lib</code>. -</p><p>Some routines in <code class="code">lib/libstdc++.exp</code> are callbacks, some are -our own. Callbacks must be prefixed with the name of the tool. To easily -distinguish the others, by convention our own routines are named "v3-*". -</p><p>The next key point when working with dejagnu is "test files". Any -directory whose name starts with the tool name will be searched for test files. -(We have only one.) In those directories, any <code class="code">.exp</code> file is -considered a test file, and will be run in turn. Our main test file is called -<code class="code">normal.exp</code>; it runs all the tests in testsuite_files using the -callbacks loaded from the support library. -</p><p>The <code class="code">config</code> directory is searched for any particular "target -board" information unique to this library. This is currently unused and sets -only default variables. -</p></div><div class="sect3" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title"><a id="test.harness.utils"></a>Utilities</h4></div></div></div><p> - </p><p> - The testsuite directory also contains some files that implement - functionality that is intended to make writing test cases easier, - or to avoid duplication, or to provide error checking in a way that - is consistent across platforms and test harnesses. A stand-alone - executable, called <span class="emphasis"><em>abi_check</em></span>, and a static - library called <span class="emphasis"><em>libtestc++</em></span> are - constructed. Both of these items are not installed, and only used - during testing. - </p><p> - These files include the following functionality: - </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul type="disc"><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_abi.h</em></span>, - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_abi.cc</em></span>, - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_abi_check.cc</em></span> - </p><p> - Creates the executable <span class="emphasis"><em>abi_check</em></span>. - Used to check correctness of symbol versioning, visibility of - exported symbols, and compatibility on symbols in the shared - library, for hosts that support this feature. More information - can be found in the ABI documentation <a class="ulink" href="abi.html" target="_top">here</a> - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_allocator.h</em></span>, - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_allocator.cc</em></span> - </p><p> - Contains specialized allocators that keep track of construction - and destruction. Also, support for overriding global new and - delete operators, including verification that new and delete - are called during execution, and that allocation over max_size - fails. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_character.h</em></span> - </p><p> - Contains <code class="code">std::char_traits</code> and - <code class="code">std::codecvt</code> specializations for a user-defined - POD. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_hooks.h</em></span>, - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_hooks.cc</em></span> - </p><p> - A large number of utilities, including: - </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul type="circle"><li><p>VERIFY</p></li><li><p>set_memory_limits</p></li><li><p>verify_demangle</p></li><li><p>run_tests_wrapped_locale</p></li><li><p>run_tests_wrapped_env</p></li><li><p>try_named_locale</p></li><li><p>try_mkfifo</p></li><li><p>func_callback</p></li><li><p>counter</p></li><li><p>copy_tracker</p></li><li><p>copy_constructor</p></li><li><p>assignment_operator</p></li><li><p>destructor</p></li><li><p>pod_char, pod_int and associated char_traits specializations</p></li></ul></div></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_io.h</em></span> - </p><p> - Error, exception, and constraint checking for - <code class="code">std::streambuf, std::basic_stringbuf, std::basic_filebuf</code>. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_iterators.h</em></span> - </p><p> - Wrappers for various iterators. - </p></li><li><p> - <span class="emphasis"><em>testsuite_performance.h</em></span> - </p><p> - A number of class abstractions for performance counters, and - reporting functions including: - </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul type="circle"><li><p>time_counter</p></li><li><p>resource_counter</p></li><li><p>report_performance</p></li></ul></div></li></ul></div></div></div></div><div class="navfooter"><hr /><table width="100%" summary="Navigation footer"><tr><td width="40%" align="left"><a accesskey="p" href="make.html">Prev</a> </td><td width="20%" align="center"><a accesskey="u" href="setup.html">Up</a></td><td width="40%" align="right"> <a accesskey="n" href="using.html">Next</a></td></tr><tr><td width="40%" align="left" valign="top">Make </td><td width="20%" align="center"><a accesskey="h" href="../spine.html">Home</a></td><td width="40%" align="right" valign="top"> Chapter 3. 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