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diff --git a/gcc-4.2.1-5666.3/gcc/doc/cpp.texi b/gcc-4.2.1-5666.3/gcc/doc/cpp.texi deleted file mode 100644 index 49c1c5fd8..000000000 --- a/gcc-4.2.1-5666.3/gcc/doc/cpp.texi +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4288 +0,0 @@ -\input texinfo -@setfilename cpp.info -@settitle The C Preprocessor -@setchapternewpage off -@c @smallbook -@c @cropmarks -@c @finalout - -@include gcc-common.texi - -@copying -@c man begin COPYRIGHT -Copyright @copyright{} 1987, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, -1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 -Free Software Foundation, Inc. - -Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document -under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or -any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. A copy of -the license is included in the -@c man end -section entitled ``GNU Free Documentation License''. -@ignore -@c man begin COPYRIGHT -man page gfdl(7). -@c man end -@end ignore - -@c man begin COPYRIGHT -This manual contains no Invariant Sections. The Front-Cover Texts are -(a) (see below), and the Back-Cover Texts are (b) (see below). - -(a) The FSF's Front-Cover Text is: - - A GNU Manual - -(b) The FSF's Back-Cover Text is: - - You have freedom to copy and modify this GNU Manual, like GNU - software. Copies published by the Free Software Foundation raise - funds for GNU development. -@c man end -@end copying - -@c Create a separate index for command line options. -@defcodeindex op -@syncodeindex vr op - -@c Used in cppopts.texi and cppenv.texi. -@set cppmanual - -@ifinfo -@dircategory Software development -@direntry -* Cpp: (cpp). The GNU C preprocessor. -@end direntry -@end ifinfo - -@titlepage -@title The C Preprocessor -@versionsubtitle -@author Richard M. Stallman, Zachary Weinberg -@page -@c There is a fill at the bottom of the page, so we need a filll to -@c override it. -@vskip 0pt plus 1filll -@insertcopying -@end titlepage -@contents -@page - -@ifnottex -@node Top -@top -The C preprocessor implements the macro language used to transform C, -C++, and Objective-C programs before they are compiled. It can also be -useful on its own. - -@menu -* Overview:: -* Header Files:: -* Macros:: -* Conditionals:: -* Diagnostics:: -* Line Control:: -* Pragmas:: -* Other Directives:: -* Preprocessor Output:: -* Traditional Mode:: -* Implementation Details:: -* Invocation:: -* Environment Variables:: -* GNU Free Documentation License:: -* Index of Directives:: -* Option Index:: -* Concept Index:: - -@detailmenu - --- The Detailed Node Listing --- - -Overview - -* Character sets:: -* Initial processing:: -* Tokenization:: -* The preprocessing language:: - -Header Files - -* Include Syntax:: -* Include Operation:: -* Search Path:: -* Once-Only Headers:: -* Computed Includes:: -* Wrapper Headers:: -* System Headers:: - -Macros - -* Object-like Macros:: -* Function-like Macros:: -* Macro Arguments:: -* Stringification:: -* Concatenation:: -* Variadic Macros:: -* Predefined Macros:: -* Undefining and Redefining Macros:: -* Directives Within Macro Arguments:: -* Macro Pitfalls:: - -Predefined Macros - -* Standard Predefined Macros:: -* Common Predefined Macros:: -* System-specific Predefined Macros:: -* C++ Named Operators:: - -Macro Pitfalls - -* Misnesting:: -* Operator Precedence Problems:: -* Swallowing the Semicolon:: -* Duplication of Side Effects:: -* Self-Referential Macros:: -* Argument Prescan:: -* Newlines in Arguments:: - -Conditionals - -* Conditional Uses:: -* Conditional Syntax:: -* Deleted Code:: - -Conditional Syntax - -* Ifdef:: -* If:: -* Defined:: -* Else:: -* Elif:: - -Implementation Details - -* Implementation-defined behavior:: -* Implementation limits:: -* Obsolete Features:: -* Differences from previous versions:: - -Obsolete Features - -* Assertions:: -* Obsolete once-only headers:: - -@end detailmenu -@end menu - -@insertcopying -@end ifnottex - -@node Overview -@chapter Overview -@c man begin DESCRIPTION -The C preprocessor, often known as @dfn{cpp}, is a @dfn{macro processor} -that is used automatically by the C compiler to transform your program -before compilation. It is called a macro processor because it allows -you to define @dfn{macros}, which are brief abbreviations for longer -constructs. - -The C preprocessor is intended to be used only with C, C++, and -Objective-C source code. In the past, it has been abused as a general -text processor. It will choke on input which does not obey C's lexical -rules. For example, apostrophes will be interpreted as the beginning of -character constants, and cause errors. Also, you cannot rely on it -preserving characteristics of the input which are not significant to -C-family languages. If a Makefile is preprocessed, all the hard tabs -will be removed, and the Makefile will not work. - -Having said that, you can often get away with using cpp on things which -are not C@. Other Algol-ish programming languages are often safe -(Pascal, Ada, etc.) So is assembly, with caution. @option{-traditional-cpp} -mode preserves more white space, and is otherwise more permissive. Many -of the problems can be avoided by writing C or C++ style comments -instead of native language comments, and keeping macros simple. - -Wherever possible, you should use a preprocessor geared to the language -you are writing in. Modern versions of the GNU assembler have macro -facilities. Most high level programming languages have their own -conditional compilation and inclusion mechanism. If all else fails, -try a true general text processor, such as GNU M4. - -C preprocessors vary in some details. This manual discusses the GNU C -preprocessor, which provides a small superset of the features of ISO -Standard C@. In its default mode, the GNU C preprocessor does not do a -few things required by the standard. These are features which are -rarely, if ever, used, and may cause surprising changes to the meaning -of a program which does not expect them. To get strict ISO Standard C, -you should use the @option{-std=c89} or @option{-std=c99} options, depending -on which version of the standard you want. To get all the mandatory -diagnostics, you must also use @option{-pedantic}. @xref{Invocation}. - -This manual describes the behavior of the ISO preprocessor. To -minimize gratuitous differences, where the ISO preprocessor's -behavior does not conflict with traditional semantics, the -traditional preprocessor should behave the same way. The various -differences that do exist are detailed in the section @ref{Traditional -Mode}. - -For clarity, unless noted otherwise, references to @samp{CPP} in this -manual refer to GNU CPP@. -@c man end - -@menu -* Character sets:: -* Initial processing:: -* Tokenization:: -* The preprocessing language:: -@end menu - -@node Character sets -@section Character sets - -Source code character set processing in C and related languages is -rather complicated. The C standard discusses two character sets, but -there are really at least four. - -The files input to CPP might be in any character set at all. CPP's -very first action, before it even looks for line boundaries, is to -convert the file into the character set it uses for internal -processing. That set is what the C standard calls the @dfn{source} -character set. It must be isomorphic with ISO 10646, also known as -Unicode. CPP uses the UTF-8 encoding of Unicode. - -The character sets of the input files are specified using the -@option{-finput-charset=} option. - -All preprocessing work (the subject of the rest of this manual) is -carried out in the source character set. If you request textual -output from the preprocessor with the @option{-E} option, it will be -in UTF-8. - -After preprocessing is complete, string and character constants are -converted again, into the @dfn{execution} character set. This -character set is under control of the user; the default is UTF-8, -matching the source character set. Wide string and character -constants have their own character set, which is not called out -specifically in the standard. Again, it is under control of the user. -The default is UTF-16 or UTF-32, whichever fits in the target's -@code{wchar_t} type, in the target machine's byte -order.@footnote{UTF-16 does not meet the requirements of the C -standard for a wide character set, but the choice of 16-bit -@code{wchar_t} is enshrined in some system ABIs so we cannot fix -this.} Octal and hexadecimal escape sequences do not undergo -conversion; @t{'\x12'} has the value 0x12 regardless of the currently -selected execution character set. All other escapes are replaced by -the character in the source character set that they represent, then -converted to the execution character set, just like unescaped -characters. - -Unless the experimental @option{-fextended-identifiers} option is used, -GCC does not permit the use of characters outside the ASCII range, nor -@samp{\u} and @samp{\U} escapes, in identifiers. Even with that -option, characters outside the ASCII range can only be specified with -the @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} escapes, not used directly in identifiers. - -@node Initial processing -@section Initial processing - -The preprocessor performs a series of textual transformations on its -input. These happen before all other processing. Conceptually, they -happen in a rigid order, and the entire file is run through each -transformation before the next one begins. CPP actually does them -all at once, for performance reasons. These transformations correspond -roughly to the first three ``phases of translation'' described in the C -standard. - -@enumerate -@item -@cindex line endings -The input file is read into memory and broken into lines. - -Different systems use different conventions to indicate the end of a -line. GCC accepts the ASCII control sequences @kbd{LF}, @kbd{@w{CR -LF}} and @kbd{CR} as end-of-line markers. These are the canonical -sequences used by Unix, DOS and VMS, and the classic Mac OS (before -OSX) respectively. You may therefore safely copy source code written -on any of those systems to a different one and use it without -conversion. (GCC may lose track of the current line number if a file -doesn't consistently use one convention, as sometimes happens when it -is edited on computers with different conventions that share a network -file system.) - -If the last line of any input file lacks an end-of-line marker, the end -of the file is considered to implicitly supply one. The C standard says -that this condition provokes undefined behavior, so GCC will emit a -warning message. - -@item -@cindex trigraphs -@anchor{trigraphs}If trigraphs are enabled, they are replaced by their -corresponding single characters. By default GCC ignores trigraphs, -but if you request a strictly conforming mode with the @option{-std} -option, or you specify the @option{-trigraphs} option, then it -converts them. - -These are nine three-character sequences, all starting with @samp{??}, -that are defined by ISO C to stand for single characters. They permit -obsolete systems that lack some of C's punctuation to use C@. For -example, @samp{??/} stands for @samp{\}, so @t{'??/n'} is a character -constant for a newline. - -Trigraphs are not popular and many compilers implement them -incorrectly. Portable code should not rely on trigraphs being either -converted or ignored. With @option{-Wtrigraphs} GCC will warn you -when a trigraph may change the meaning of your program if it were -converted. @xref{Wtrigraphs}. - -In a string constant, you can prevent a sequence of question marks -from being confused with a trigraph by inserting a backslash between -the question marks, or by separating the string literal at the -trigraph and making use of string literal concatenation. @t{"(??\?)"} -is the string @samp{(???)}, not @samp{(?]}. Traditional C compilers -do not recognize these idioms. - -The nine trigraphs and their replacements are - -@smallexample -Trigraph: ??( ??) ??< ??> ??= ??/ ??' ??! ??- -Replacement: [ ] @{ @} # \ ^ | ~ -@end smallexample - -@item -@cindex continued lines -@cindex backslash-newline -Continued lines are merged into one long line. - -A continued line is a line which ends with a backslash, @samp{\}. The -backslash is removed and the following line is joined with the current -one. No space is inserted, so you may split a line anywhere, even in -the middle of a word. (It is generally more readable to split lines -only at white space.) - -The trailing backslash on a continued line is commonly referred to as a -@dfn{backslash-newline}. - -If there is white space between a backslash and the end of a line, that -is still a continued line. However, as this is usually the result of an -editing mistake, and many compilers will not accept it as a continued -line, GCC will warn you about it. - -@item -@cindex comments -@cindex line comments -@cindex block comments -All comments are replaced with single spaces. - -There are two kinds of comments. @dfn{Block comments} begin with -@samp{/*} and continue until the next @samp{*/}. Block comments do not -nest: - -@smallexample -/* @r{this is} /* @r{one comment} */ @r{text outside comment} -@end smallexample - -@dfn{Line comments} begin with @samp{//} and continue to the end of the -current line. Line comments do not nest either, but it does not matter, -because they would end in the same place anyway. - -@smallexample -// @r{this is} // @r{one comment} -@r{text outside comment} -@end smallexample -@end enumerate - -It is safe to put line comments inside block comments, or vice versa. - -@smallexample -@group -/* @r{block comment} - // @r{contains line comment} - @r{yet more comment} - */ @r{outside comment} - -// @r{line comment} /* @r{contains block comment} */ -@end group -@end smallexample - -But beware of commenting out one end of a block comment with a line -comment. - -@smallexample -@group - // @r{l.c.} /* @r{block comment begins} - @r{oops! this isn't a comment anymore} */ -@end group -@end smallexample - -Comments are not recognized within string literals. -@t{@w{"/* blah */"}} is the string constant @samp{@w{/* blah */}}, not -an empty string. - -Line comments are not in the 1989 edition of the C standard, but they -are recognized by GCC as an extension. In C++ and in the 1999 edition -of the C standard, they are an official part of the language. - -Since these transformations happen before all other processing, you can -split a line mechanically with backslash-newline anywhere. You can -comment out the end of a line. You can continue a line comment onto the -next line with backslash-newline. You can even split @samp{/*}, -@samp{*/}, and @samp{//} onto multiple lines with backslash-newline. -For example: - -@smallexample -@group -/\ -* -*/ # /* -*/ defi\ -ne FO\ -O 10\ -20 -@end group -@end smallexample - -@noindent -is equivalent to @code{@w{#define FOO 1020}}. All these tricks are -extremely confusing and should not be used in code intended to be -readable. - -There is no way to prevent a backslash at the end of a line from being -interpreted as a backslash-newline. This cannot affect any correct -program, however. - -@node Tokenization -@section Tokenization - -@cindex tokens -@cindex preprocessing tokens -After the textual transformations are finished, the input file is -converted into a sequence of @dfn{preprocessing tokens}. These mostly -correspond to the syntactic tokens used by the C compiler, but there are -a few differences. White space separates tokens; it is not itself a -token of any kind. Tokens do not have to be separated by white space, -but it is often necessary to avoid ambiguities. - -When faced with a sequence of characters that has more than one possible -tokenization, the preprocessor is greedy. It always makes each token, -starting from the left, as big as possible before moving on to the next -token. For instance, @code{a+++++b} is interpreted as -@code{@w{a ++ ++ + b}}, not as @code{@w{a ++ + ++ b}}, even though the -latter tokenization could be part of a valid C program and the former -could not. - -Once the input file is broken into tokens, the token boundaries never -change, except when the @samp{##} preprocessing operator is used to paste -tokens together. @xref{Concatenation}. For example, - -@smallexample -@group -#define foo() bar -foo()baz - @expansion{} bar baz -@emph{not} - @expansion{} barbaz -@end group -@end smallexample - -The compiler does not re-tokenize the preprocessor's output. Each -preprocessing token becomes one compiler token. - -@cindex identifiers -Preprocessing tokens fall into five broad classes: identifiers, -preprocessing numbers, string literals, punctuators, and other. An -@dfn{identifier} is the same as an identifier in C: any sequence of -letters, digits, or underscores, which begins with a letter or -underscore. Keywords of C have no significance to the preprocessor; -they are ordinary identifiers. You can define a macro whose name is a -keyword, for instance. The only identifier which can be considered a -preprocessing keyword is @code{defined}. @xref{Defined}. - -This is mostly true of other languages which use the C preprocessor. -However, a few of the keywords of C++ are significant even in the -preprocessor. @xref{C++ Named Operators}. - -In the 1999 C standard, identifiers may contain letters which are not -part of the ``basic source character set'', at the implementation's -discretion (such as accented Latin letters, Greek letters, or Chinese -ideograms). This may be done with an extended character set, or the -@samp{\u} and @samp{\U} escape sequences. The implementation of this -feature in GCC is experimental; such characters are only accepted in -the @samp{\u} and @samp{\U} forms and only if -@option{-fextended-identifiers} is used. - -As an extension, GCC treats @samp{$} as a letter. This is for -compatibility with some systems, such as VMS, where @samp{$} is commonly -used in system-defined function and object names. @samp{$} is not a -letter in strictly conforming mode, or if you specify the @option{-$} -option. @xref{Invocation}. - -@cindex numbers -@cindex preprocessing numbers -A @dfn{preprocessing number} has a rather bizarre definition. The -category includes all the normal integer and floating point constants -one expects of C, but also a number of other things one might not -initially recognize as a number. Formally, preprocessing numbers begin -with an optional period, a required decimal digit, and then continue -with any sequence of letters, digits, underscores, periods, and -exponents. Exponents are the two-character sequences @samp{e+}, -@samp{e-}, @samp{E+}, @samp{E-}, @samp{p+}, @samp{p-}, @samp{P+}, and -@samp{P-}. (The exponents that begin with @samp{p} or @samp{P} are new -to C99. They are used for hexadecimal floating-point constants.) - -The purpose of this unusual definition is to isolate the preprocessor -from the full complexity of numeric constants. It does not have to -distinguish between lexically valid and invalid floating-point numbers, -which is complicated. The definition also permits you to split an -identifier at any position and get exactly two tokens, which can then be -pasted back together with the @samp{##} operator. - -It's possible for preprocessing numbers to cause programs to be -misinterpreted. For example, @code{0xE+12} is a preprocessing number -which does not translate to any valid numeric constant, therefore a -syntax error. It does not mean @code{@w{0xE + 12}}, which is what you -might have intended. - -@cindex string literals -@cindex string constants -@cindex character constants -@cindex header file names -@c the @: prevents makeinfo from turning '' into ". -@dfn{String literals} are string constants, character constants, and -header file names (the argument of @samp{#include}).@footnote{The C -standard uses the term @dfn{string literal} to refer only to what we are -calling @dfn{string constants}.} String constants and character -constants are straightforward: @t{"@dots{}"} or @t{'@dots{}'}. In -either case embedded quotes should be escaped with a backslash: -@t{'\'@:'} is the character constant for @samp{'}. There is no limit on -the length of a character constant, but the value of a character -constant that contains more than one character is -implementation-defined. @xref{Implementation Details}. - -Header file names either look like string constants, @t{"@dots{}"}, or are -written with angle brackets instead, @t{<@dots{}>}. In either case, -backslash is an ordinary character. There is no way to escape the -closing quote or angle bracket. The preprocessor looks for the header -file in different places depending on which form you use. @xref{Include -Operation}. - -No string literal may extend past the end of a line. Older versions -of GCC accepted multi-line string constants. You may use continued -lines instead, or string constant concatenation. @xref{Differences -from previous versions}. - -@cindex punctuators -@cindex digraphs -@cindex alternative tokens -@dfn{Punctuators} are all the usual bits of punctuation which are -meaningful to C and C++. All but three of the punctuation characters in -ASCII are C punctuators. The exceptions are @samp{@@}, @samp{$}, and -@samp{`}. In addition, all the two- and three-character operators are -punctuators. There are also six @dfn{digraphs}, which the C++ standard -calls @dfn{alternative tokens}, which are merely alternate ways to spell -other punctuators. This is a second attempt to work around missing -punctuation in obsolete systems. It has no negative side effects, -unlike trigraphs, but does not cover as much ground. The digraphs and -their corresponding normal punctuators are: - -@smallexample -Digraph: <% %> <: :> %: %:%: -Punctuator: @{ @} [ ] # ## -@end smallexample - -@cindex other tokens -Any other single character is considered ``other''. It is passed on to -the preprocessor's output unmolested. The C compiler will almost -certainly reject source code containing ``other'' tokens. In ASCII, the -only other characters are @samp{@@}, @samp{$}, @samp{`}, and control -characters other than NUL (all bits zero). (Note that @samp{$} is -normally considered a letter.) All characters with the high bit set -(numeric range 0x7F--0xFF) are also ``other'' in the present -implementation. This will change when proper support for international -character sets is added to GCC@. - -NUL is a special case because of the high probability that its -appearance is accidental, and because it may be invisible to the user -(many terminals do not display NUL at all). Within comments, NULs are -silently ignored, just as any other character would be. In running -text, NUL is considered white space. For example, these two directives -have the same meaning. - -@smallexample -#define X^@@1 -#define X 1 -@end smallexample - -@noindent -(where @samp{^@@} is ASCII NUL)@. Within string or character constants, -NULs are preserved. In the latter two cases the preprocessor emits a -warning message. - -@node The preprocessing language -@section The preprocessing language -@cindex directives -@cindex preprocessing directives -@cindex directive line -@cindex directive name - -After tokenization, the stream of tokens may simply be passed straight -to the compiler's parser. However, if it contains any operations in the -@dfn{preprocessing language}, it will be transformed first. This stage -corresponds roughly to the standard's ``translation phase 4'' and is -what most people think of as the preprocessor's job. - -The preprocessing language consists of @dfn{directives} to be executed -and @dfn{macros} to be expanded. Its primary capabilities are: - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Inclusion of header files. These are files of declarations that can be -substituted into your program. - -@item -Macro expansion. You can define @dfn{macros}, which are abbreviations -for arbitrary fragments of C code. The preprocessor will replace the -macros with their definitions throughout the program. Some macros are -automatically defined for you. - -@item -Conditional compilation. You can include or exclude parts of the -program according to various conditions. - -@item -Line control. If you use a program to combine or rearrange source files -into an intermediate file which is then compiled, you can use line -control to inform the compiler where each source line originally came -from. - -@item -Diagnostics. You can detect problems at compile time and issue errors -or warnings. -@end itemize - -There are a few more, less useful, features. - -Except for expansion of predefined macros, all these operations are -triggered with @dfn{preprocessing directives}. Preprocessing directives -are lines in your program that start with @samp{#}. Whitespace is -allowed before and after the @samp{#}. The @samp{#} is followed by an -identifier, the @dfn{directive name}. It specifies the operation to -perform. Directives are commonly referred to as @samp{#@var{name}} -where @var{name} is the directive name. For example, @samp{#define} is -the directive that defines a macro. - -The @samp{#} which begins a directive cannot come from a macro -expansion. Also, the directive name is not macro expanded. Thus, if -@code{foo} is defined as a macro expanding to @code{define}, that does -not make @samp{#foo} a valid preprocessing directive. - -The set of valid directive names is fixed. Programs cannot define new -preprocessing directives. - -Some directives require arguments; these make up the rest of the -directive line and must be separated from the directive name by -whitespace. For example, @samp{#define} must be followed by a macro -name and the intended expansion of the macro. - -A preprocessing directive cannot cover more than one line. The line -may, however, be continued with backslash-newline, or by a block comment -which extends past the end of the line. In either case, when the -directive is processed, the continuations have already been merged with -the first line to make one long line. - -@node Header Files -@chapter Header Files - -@cindex header file -A header file is a file containing C declarations and macro definitions -(@pxref{Macros}) to be shared between several source files. You request -the use of a header file in your program by @dfn{including} it, with the -C preprocessing directive @samp{#include}. - -Header files serve two purposes. - -@itemize @bullet -@item -@cindex system header files -System header files declare the interfaces to parts of the operating -system. You include them in your program to supply the definitions and -declarations you need to invoke system calls and libraries. - -@item -Your own header files contain declarations for interfaces between the -source files of your program. Each time you have a group of related -declarations and macro definitions all or most of which are needed in -several different source files, it is a good idea to create a header -file for them. -@end itemize - -Including a header file produces the same results as copying the header -file into each source file that needs it. Such copying would be -time-consuming and error-prone. With a header file, the related -declarations appear in only one place. If they need to be changed, they -can be changed in one place, and programs that include the header file -will automatically use the new version when next recompiled. The header -file eliminates the labor of finding and changing all the copies as well -as the risk that a failure to find one copy will result in -inconsistencies within a program. - -In C, the usual convention is to give header files names that end with -@file{.h}. It is most portable to use only letters, digits, dashes, and -underscores in header file names, and at most one dot. - -@menu -* Include Syntax:: -* Include Operation:: -* Search Path:: -* Once-Only Headers:: -* Computed Includes:: -* Wrapper Headers:: -* System Headers:: -@end menu - -@node Include Syntax -@section Include Syntax - -@findex #include -Both user and system header files are included using the preprocessing -directive @samp{#include}. It has two variants: - -@table @code -@item #include <@var{file}> -This variant is used for system header files. It searches for a file -named @var{file} in a standard list of system directories. You can prepend -directories to this list with the @option{-I} option (@pxref{Invocation}). - -@item #include "@var{file}" -This variant is used for header files of your own program. It -searches for a file named @var{file} first in the directory containing -the current file, then in the quote directories and then the same -directories used for @code{<@var{file}>}. You can prepend directories -to the list of quote directories with the @option{-iquote} option. -@end table - -The argument of @samp{#include}, whether delimited with quote marks or -angle brackets, behaves like a string constant in that comments are not -recognized, and macro names are not expanded. Thus, @code{@w{#include -<x/*y>}} specifies inclusion of a system header file named @file{x/*y}. - -However, if backslashes occur within @var{file}, they are considered -ordinary text characters, not escape characters. None of the character -escape sequences appropriate to string constants in C are processed. -Thus, @code{@w{#include "x\n\\y"}} specifies a filename containing three -backslashes. (Some systems interpret @samp{\} as a pathname separator. -All of these also interpret @samp{/} the same way. It is most portable -to use only @samp{/}.) - -It is an error if there is anything (other than comments) on the line -after the file name. - -@node Include Operation -@section Include Operation - -The @samp{#include} directive works by directing the C preprocessor to -scan the specified file as input before continuing with the rest of the -current file. The output from the preprocessor contains the output -already generated, followed by the output resulting from the included -file, followed by the output that comes from the text after the -@samp{#include} directive. For example, if you have a header file -@file{header.h} as follows, - -@smallexample -char *test (void); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -and a main program called @file{program.c} that uses the header file, -like this, - -@smallexample -int x; -#include "header.h" - -int -main (void) -@{ - puts (test ()); -@} -@end smallexample - -@noindent -the compiler will see the same token stream as it would if -@file{program.c} read - -@smallexample -int x; -char *test (void); - -int -main (void) -@{ - puts (test ()); -@} -@end smallexample - -Included files are not limited to declarations and macro definitions; -those are merely the typical uses. Any fragment of a C program can be -included from another file. The include file could even contain the -beginning of a statement that is concluded in the containing file, or -the end of a statement that was started in the including file. However, -an included file must consist of complete tokens. Comments and string -literals which have not been closed by the end of an included file are -invalid. For error recovery, they are considered to end at the end of -the file. - -To avoid confusion, it is best if header files contain only complete -syntactic units---function declarations or definitions, type -declarations, etc. - -The line following the @samp{#include} directive is always treated as a -separate line by the C preprocessor, even if the included file lacks a -final newline. - -@node Search Path -@section Search Path - -GCC looks in several different places for headers. On a normal Unix -system, if you do not instruct it otherwise, it will look for headers -requested with @code{@w{#include <@var{file}>}} in: - -@smallexample -/usr/local/include -@var{libdir}/gcc/@var{target}/@var{version}/include -/usr/@var{target}/include -/usr/include -@end smallexample - -For C++ programs, it will also look in @file{/usr/include/g++-v3}, -first. In the above, @var{target} is the canonical name of the system -GCC was configured to compile code for; often but not always the same as -the canonical name of the system it runs on. @var{version} is the -version of GCC in use. - -You can add to this list with the @option{-I@var{dir}} command line -option. All the directories named by @option{-I} are searched, in -left-to-right order, @emph{before} the default directories. The only -exception is when @file{dir} is already searched by default. In -this case, the option is ignored and the search order for system -directories remains unchanged. - -Duplicate directories are removed from the quote and bracket search -chains before the two chains are merged to make the final search chain. -Thus, it is possible for a directory to occur twice in the final search -chain if it was specified in both the quote and bracket chains. - -You can prevent GCC from searching any of the default directories with -the @option{-nostdinc} option. This is useful when you are compiling an -operating system kernel or some other program that does not use the -standard C library facilities, or the standard C library itself. -@option{-I} options are not ignored as described above when -@option{-nostdinc} is in effect. - -GCC looks for headers requested with @code{@w{#include "@var{file}"}} -first in the directory containing the current file, then in the -directories as specified by @option{-iquote} options, then in the same -places it would have looked for a header requested with angle -brackets. For example, if @file{/usr/include/sys/stat.h} contains -@code{@w{#include "types.h"}}, GCC looks for @file{types.h} first in -@file{/usr/include/sys}, then in its usual search path. - -@samp{#line} (@pxref{Line Control}) does not change GCC's idea of the -directory containing the current file. - -You may put @option{-I-} at any point in your list of @option{-I} options. -This has two effects. First, directories appearing before the -@option{-I-} in the list are searched only for headers requested with -quote marks. Directories after @option{-I-} are searched for all -headers. Second, the directory containing the current file is not -searched for anything, unless it happens to be one of the directories -named by an @option{-I} switch. @option{-I-} is deprecated, @option{-iquote} -should be used instead. - -@option{-I. -I-} is not the same as no @option{-I} options at all, and does -not cause the same behavior for @samp{<>} includes that @samp{""} -includes get with no special options. @option{-I.} searches the -compiler's current working directory for header files. That may or may -not be the same as the directory containing the current file. - -If you need to look for headers in a directory named @file{-}, write -@option{-I./-}. - -There are several more ways to adjust the header search path. They are -generally less useful. @xref{Invocation}. - -@node Once-Only Headers -@section Once-Only Headers -@cindex repeated inclusion -@cindex including just once -@cindex wrapper @code{#ifndef} - -If a header file happens to be included twice, the compiler will process -its contents twice. This is very likely to cause an error, e.g.@: when the -compiler sees the same structure definition twice. Even if it does not, -it will certainly waste time. - -The standard way to prevent this is to enclose the entire real contents -of the file in a conditional, like this: - -@smallexample -@group -/* File foo. */ -#ifndef FILE_FOO_SEEN -#define FILE_FOO_SEEN - -@var{the entire file} - -#endif /* !FILE_FOO_SEEN */ -@end group -@end smallexample - -This construct is commonly known as a @dfn{wrapper #ifndef}. -When the header is included again, the conditional will be false, -because @code{FILE_FOO_SEEN} is defined. The preprocessor will skip -over the entire contents of the file, and the compiler will not see it -twice. - -CPP optimizes even further. It remembers when a header file has a -wrapper @samp{#ifndef}. If a subsequent @samp{#include} specifies that -header, and the macro in the @samp{#ifndef} is still defined, it does -not bother to rescan the file at all. - -You can put comments outside the wrapper. They will not interfere with -this optimization. - -@cindex controlling macro -@cindex guard macro -The macro @code{FILE_FOO_SEEN} is called the @dfn{controlling macro} or -@dfn{guard macro}. In a user header file, the macro name should not -begin with @samp{_}. In a system header file, it should begin with -@samp{__} to avoid conflicts with user programs. In any kind of header -file, the macro name should contain the name of the file and some -additional text, to avoid conflicts with other header files. - -@node Computed Includes -@section Computed Includes -@cindex computed includes -@cindex macros in include - -Sometimes it is necessary to select one of several different header -files to be included into your program. They might specify -configuration parameters to be used on different sorts of operating -systems, for instance. You could do this with a series of conditionals, - -@smallexample -#if SYSTEM_1 -# include "system_1.h" -#elif SYSTEM_2 -# include "system_2.h" -#elif SYSTEM_3 -@dots{} -#endif -@end smallexample - -That rapidly becomes tedious. Instead, the preprocessor offers the -ability to use a macro for the header name. This is called a -@dfn{computed include}. Instead of writing a header name as the direct -argument of @samp{#include}, you simply put a macro name there instead: - -@smallexample -#define SYSTEM_H "system_1.h" -@dots{} -#include SYSTEM_H -@end smallexample - -@noindent -@code{SYSTEM_H} will be expanded, and the preprocessor will look for -@file{system_1.h} as if the @samp{#include} had been written that way -originally. @code{SYSTEM_H} could be defined by your Makefile with a -@option{-D} option. - -You must be careful when you define the macro. @samp{#define} saves -tokens, not text. The preprocessor has no way of knowing that the macro -will be used as the argument of @samp{#include}, so it generates -ordinary tokens, not a header name. This is unlikely to cause problems -if you use double-quote includes, which are close enough to string -constants. If you use angle brackets, however, you may have trouble. - -The syntax of a computed include is actually a bit more general than the -above. If the first non-whitespace character after @samp{#include} is -not @samp{"} or @samp{<}, then the entire line is macro-expanded -like running text would be. - -If the line expands to a single string constant, the contents of that -string constant are the file to be included. CPP does not re-examine the -string for embedded quotes, but neither does it process backslash -escapes in the string. Therefore - -@smallexample -#define HEADER "a\"b" -#include HEADER -@end smallexample - -@noindent -looks for a file named @file{a\"b}. CPP searches for the file according -to the rules for double-quoted includes. - -If the line expands to a token stream beginning with a @samp{<} token -and including a @samp{>} token, then the tokens between the @samp{<} and -the first @samp{>} are combined to form the filename to be included. -Any whitespace between tokens is reduced to a single space; then any -space after the initial @samp{<} is retained, but a trailing space -before the closing @samp{>} is ignored. CPP searches for the file -according to the rules for angle-bracket includes. - -In either case, if there are any tokens on the line after the file name, -an error occurs and the directive is not processed. It is also an error -if the result of expansion does not match either of the two expected -forms. - -These rules are implementation-defined behavior according to the C -standard. To minimize the risk of different compilers interpreting your -computed includes differently, we recommend you use only a single -object-like macro which expands to a string constant. This will also -minimize confusion for people reading your program. - -@node Wrapper Headers -@section Wrapper Headers -@cindex wrapper headers -@cindex overriding a header file -@findex #include_next - -Sometimes it is necessary to adjust the contents of a system-provided -header file without editing it directly. GCC's @command{fixincludes} -operation does this, for example. One way to do that would be to create -a new header file with the same name and insert it in the search path -before the original header. That works fine as long as you're willing -to replace the old header entirely. But what if you want to refer to -the old header from the new one? - -You cannot simply include the old header with @samp{#include}. That -will start from the beginning, and find your new header again. If your -header is not protected from multiple inclusion (@pxref{Once-Only -Headers}), it will recurse infinitely and cause a fatal error. - -You could include the old header with an absolute pathname: -@smallexample -#include "/usr/include/old-header.h" -@end smallexample -@noindent -This works, but is not clean; should the system headers ever move, you -would have to edit the new headers to match. - -There is no way to solve this problem within the C standard, but you can -use the GNU extension @samp{#include_next}. It means, ``Include the -@emph{next} file with this name''. This directive works like -@samp{#include} except in searching for the specified file: it starts -searching the list of header file directories @emph{after} the directory -in which the current file was found. - -Suppose you specify @option{-I /usr/local/include}, and the list of -directories to search also includes @file{/usr/include}; and suppose -both directories contain @file{signal.h}. Ordinary @code{@w{#include -<signal.h>}} finds the file under @file{/usr/local/include}. If that -file contains @code{@w{#include_next <signal.h>}}, it starts searching -after that directory, and finds the file in @file{/usr/include}. - -@samp{#include_next} does not distinguish between @code{<@var{file}>} -and @code{"@var{file}"} inclusion, nor does it check that the file you -specify has the same name as the current file. It simply looks for the -file named, starting with the directory in the search path after the one -where the current file was found. - -The use of @samp{#include_next} can lead to great confusion. We -recommend it be used only when there is no other alternative. In -particular, it should not be used in the headers belonging to a specific -program; it should be used only to make global corrections along the -lines of @command{fixincludes}. - -@node System Headers -@section System Headers -@cindex system header files - -The header files declaring interfaces to the operating system and -runtime libraries often cannot be written in strictly conforming C@. -Therefore, GCC gives code found in @dfn{system headers} special -treatment. All warnings, other than those generated by @samp{#warning} -(@pxref{Diagnostics}), are suppressed while GCC is processing a system -header. Macros defined in a system header are immune to a few warnings -wherever they are expanded. This immunity is granted on an ad-hoc -basis, when we find that a warning generates lots of false positives -because of code in macros defined in system headers. - -Normally, only the headers found in specific directories are considered -system headers. These directories are determined when GCC is compiled. -There are, however, two ways to make normal headers into system headers. - -The @option{-isystem} command line option adds its argument to the list of -directories to search for headers, just like @option{-I}. Any headers -found in that directory will be considered system headers. - -All directories named by @option{-isystem} are searched @emph{after} all -directories named by @option{-I}, no matter what their order was on the -command line. If the same directory is named by both @option{-I} and -@option{-isystem}, the @option{-I} option is ignored. GCC provides an -informative message when this occurs if @option{-v} is used. - -@findex #pragma GCC system_header -There is also a directive, @code{@w{#pragma GCC system_header}}, which -tells GCC to consider the rest of the current include file a system -header, no matter where it was found. Code that comes before the -@samp{#pragma} in the file will not be affected. @code{@w{#pragma GCC -system_header}} has no effect in the primary source file. - -On very old systems, some of the pre-defined system header directories -get even more special treatment. GNU C++ considers code in headers -found in those directories to be surrounded by an @code{@w{extern "C"}} -block. There is no way to request this behavior with a @samp{#pragma}, -or from the command line. - -@node Macros -@chapter Macros - -A @dfn{macro} is a fragment of code which has been given a name. -Whenever the name is used, it is replaced by the contents of the macro. -There are two kinds of macros. They differ mostly in what they look -like when they are used. @dfn{Object-like} macros resemble data objects -when used, @dfn{function-like} macros resemble function calls. - -You may define any valid identifier as a macro, even if it is a C -keyword. The preprocessor does not know anything about keywords. This -can be useful if you wish to hide a keyword such as @code{const} from an -older compiler that does not understand it. However, the preprocessor -operator @code{defined} (@pxref{Defined}) can never be defined as a -macro, and C++'s named operators (@pxref{C++ Named Operators}) cannot be -macros when you are compiling C++. - -@menu -* Object-like Macros:: -* Function-like Macros:: -* Macro Arguments:: -* Stringification:: -* Concatenation:: -* Variadic Macros:: -* Predefined Macros:: -* Undefining and Redefining Macros:: -* Directives Within Macro Arguments:: -* Macro Pitfalls:: -@end menu - -@node Object-like Macros -@section Object-like Macros -@cindex object-like macro -@cindex symbolic constants -@cindex manifest constants - -An @dfn{object-like macro} is a simple identifier which will be replaced -by a code fragment. It is called object-like because it looks like a -data object in code that uses it. They are most commonly used to give -symbolic names to numeric constants. - -@findex #define -You create macros with the @samp{#define} directive. @samp{#define} is -followed by the name of the macro and then the token sequence it should -be an abbreviation for, which is variously referred to as the macro's -@dfn{body}, @dfn{expansion} or @dfn{replacement list}. For example, - -@smallexample -#define BUFFER_SIZE 1024 -@end smallexample - -@noindent -defines a macro named @code{BUFFER_SIZE} as an abbreviation for the -token @code{1024}. If somewhere after this @samp{#define} directive -there comes a C statement of the form - -@smallexample -foo = (char *) malloc (BUFFER_SIZE); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -then the C preprocessor will recognize and @dfn{expand} the macro -@code{BUFFER_SIZE}. The C compiler will see the same tokens as it would -if you had written - -@smallexample -foo = (char *) malloc (1024); -@end smallexample - -By convention, macro names are written in uppercase. Programs are -easier to read when it is possible to tell at a glance which names are -macros. - -The macro's body ends at the end of the @samp{#define} line. You may -continue the definition onto multiple lines, if necessary, using -backslash-newline. When the macro is expanded, however, it will all -come out on one line. For example, - -@smallexample -#define NUMBERS 1, \ - 2, \ - 3 -int x[] = @{ NUMBERS @}; - @expansion{} int x[] = @{ 1, 2, 3 @}; -@end smallexample - -@noindent -The most common visible consequence of this is surprising line numbers -in error messages. - -There is no restriction on what can go in a macro body provided it -decomposes into valid preprocessing tokens. Parentheses need not -balance, and the body need not resemble valid C code. (If it does not, -you may get error messages from the C compiler when you use the macro.) - -The C preprocessor scans your program sequentially. Macro definitions -take effect at the place you write them. Therefore, the following input -to the C preprocessor - -@smallexample -foo = X; -#define X 4 -bar = X; -@end smallexample - -@noindent -produces - -@smallexample -foo = X; -bar = 4; -@end smallexample - -When the preprocessor expands a macro name, the macro's expansion -replaces the macro invocation, then the expansion is examined for more -macros to expand. For example, - -@smallexample -@group -#define TABLESIZE BUFSIZE -#define BUFSIZE 1024 -TABLESIZE - @expansion{} BUFSIZE - @expansion{} 1024 -@end group -@end smallexample - -@noindent -@code{TABLESIZE} is expanded first to produce @code{BUFSIZE}, then that -macro is expanded to produce the final result, @code{1024}. - -Notice that @code{BUFSIZE} was not defined when @code{TABLESIZE} was -defined. The @samp{#define} for @code{TABLESIZE} uses exactly the -expansion you specify---in this case, @code{BUFSIZE}---and does not -check to see whether it too contains macro names. Only when you -@emph{use} @code{TABLESIZE} is the result of its expansion scanned for -more macro names. - -This makes a difference if you change the definition of @code{BUFSIZE} -at some point in the source file. @code{TABLESIZE}, defined as shown, -will always expand using the definition of @code{BUFSIZE} that is -currently in effect: - -@smallexample -#define BUFSIZE 1020 -#define TABLESIZE BUFSIZE -#undef BUFSIZE -#define BUFSIZE 37 -@end smallexample - -@noindent -Now @code{TABLESIZE} expands (in two stages) to @code{37}. - -If the expansion of a macro contains its own name, either directly or -via intermediate macros, it is not expanded again when the expansion is -examined for more macros. This prevents infinite recursion. -@xref{Self-Referential Macros}, for the precise details. - -@node Function-like Macros -@section Function-like Macros -@cindex function-like macros - -You can also define macros whose use looks like a function call. These -are called @dfn{function-like macros}. To define a function-like macro, -you use the same @samp{#define} directive, but you put a pair of -parentheses immediately after the macro name. For example, - -@smallexample -#define lang_init() c_init() -lang_init() - @expansion{} c_init() -@end smallexample - -A function-like macro is only expanded if its name appears with a pair -of parentheses after it. If you write just the name, it is left alone. -This can be useful when you have a function and a macro of the same -name, and you wish to use the function sometimes. - -@smallexample -extern void foo(void); -#define foo() /* @r{optimized inline version} */ -@dots{} - foo(); - funcptr = foo; -@end smallexample - -Here the call to @code{foo()} will use the macro, but the function -pointer will get the address of the real function. If the macro were to -be expanded, it would cause a syntax error. - -If you put spaces between the macro name and the parentheses in the -macro definition, that does not define a function-like macro, it defines -an object-like macro whose expansion happens to begin with a pair of -parentheses. - -@smallexample -#define lang_init () c_init() -lang_init() - @expansion{} () c_init()() -@end smallexample - -The first two pairs of parentheses in this expansion come from the -macro. The third is the pair that was originally after the macro -invocation. Since @code{lang_init} is an object-like macro, it does not -consume those parentheses. - -@node Macro Arguments -@section Macro Arguments -@cindex arguments -@cindex macros with arguments -@cindex arguments in macro definitions - -Function-like macros can take @dfn{arguments}, just like true functions. -To define a macro that uses arguments, you insert @dfn{parameters} -between the pair of parentheses in the macro definition that make the -macro function-like. The parameters must be valid C identifiers, -separated by commas and optionally whitespace. - -To invoke a macro that takes arguments, you write the name of the macro -followed by a list of @dfn{actual arguments} in parentheses, separated -by commas. The invocation of the macro need not be restricted to a -single logical line---it can cross as many lines in the source file as -you wish. The number of arguments you give must match the number of -parameters in the macro definition. When the macro is expanded, each -use of a parameter in its body is replaced by the tokens of the -corresponding argument. (You need not use all of the parameters in the -macro body.) - -As an example, here is a macro that computes the minimum of two numeric -values, as it is defined in many C programs, and some uses. - -@smallexample -#define min(X, Y) ((X) < (Y) ? (X) : (Y)) - x = min(a, b); @expansion{} x = ((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b)); - y = min(1, 2); @expansion{} y = ((1) < (2) ? (1) : (2)); - z = min(a + 28, *p); @expansion{} z = ((a + 28) < (*p) ? (a + 28) : (*p)); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -(In this small example you can already see several of the dangers of -macro arguments. @xref{Macro Pitfalls}, for detailed explanations.) - -Leading and trailing whitespace in each argument is dropped, and all -whitespace between the tokens of an argument is reduced to a single -space. Parentheses within each argument must balance; a comma within -such parentheses does not end the argument. However, there is no -requirement for square brackets or braces to balance, and they do not -prevent a comma from separating arguments. Thus, - -@smallexample -macro (array[x = y, x + 1]) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -passes two arguments to @code{macro}: @code{array[x = y} and @code{x + -1]}. If you want to supply @code{array[x = y, x + 1]} as an argument, -you can write it as @code{array[(x = y, x + 1)]}, which is equivalent C -code. - -All arguments to a macro are completely macro-expanded before they are -substituted into the macro body. After substitution, the complete text -is scanned again for macros to expand, including the arguments. This rule -may seem strange, but it is carefully designed so you need not worry -about whether any function call is actually a macro invocation. You can -run into trouble if you try to be too clever, though. @xref{Argument -Prescan}, for detailed discussion. - -For example, @code{min (min (a, b), c)} is first expanded to - -@smallexample - min (((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b)), (c)) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -and then to - -@smallexample -@group -((((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b))) < (c) - ? (((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b))) - : (c)) -@end group -@end smallexample - -@noindent -(Line breaks shown here for clarity would not actually be generated.) - -@cindex empty macro arguments -You can leave macro arguments empty; this is not an error to the -preprocessor (but many macros will then expand to invalid code). -You cannot leave out arguments entirely; if a macro takes two arguments, -there must be exactly one comma at the top level of its argument list. -Here are some silly examples using @code{min}: - -@smallexample -min(, b) @expansion{} (( ) < (b) ? ( ) : (b)) -min(a, ) @expansion{} ((a ) < ( ) ? (a ) : ( )) -min(,) @expansion{} (( ) < ( ) ? ( ) : ( )) -min((,),) @expansion{} (((,)) < ( ) ? ((,)) : ( )) - -min() @error{} macro "min" requires 2 arguments, but only 1 given -min(,,) @error{} macro "min" passed 3 arguments, but takes just 2 -@end smallexample - -Whitespace is not a preprocessing token, so if a macro @code{foo} takes -one argument, @code{@w{foo ()}} and @code{@w{foo ( )}} both supply it an -empty argument. Previous GNU preprocessor implementations and -documentation were incorrect on this point, insisting that a -function-like macro that takes a single argument be passed a space if an -empty argument was required. - -Macro parameters appearing inside string literals are not replaced by -their corresponding actual arguments. - -@smallexample -#define foo(x) x, "x" -foo(bar) @expansion{} bar, "x" -@end smallexample - -@node Stringification -@section Stringification -@cindex stringification -@cindex @samp{#} operator - -Sometimes you may want to convert a macro argument into a string -constant. Parameters are not replaced inside string constants, but you -can use the @samp{#} preprocessing operator instead. When a macro -parameter is used with a leading @samp{#}, the preprocessor replaces it -with the literal text of the actual argument, converted to a string -constant. Unlike normal parameter replacement, the argument is not -macro-expanded first. This is called @dfn{stringification}. - -There is no way to combine an argument with surrounding text and -stringify it all together. Instead, you can write a series of adjacent -string constants and stringified arguments. The preprocessor will -replace the stringified arguments with string constants. The C -compiler will then combine all the adjacent string constants into one -long string. - -Here is an example of a macro definition that uses stringification: - -@smallexample -@group -#define WARN_IF(EXP) \ -do @{ if (EXP) \ - fprintf (stderr, "Warning: " #EXP "\n"); @} \ -while (0) -WARN_IF (x == 0); - @expansion{} do @{ if (x == 0) - fprintf (stderr, "Warning: " "x == 0" "\n"); @} while (0); -@end group -@end smallexample - -@noindent -The argument for @code{EXP} is substituted once, as-is, into the -@code{if} statement, and once, stringified, into the argument to -@code{fprintf}. If @code{x} were a macro, it would be expanded in the -@code{if} statement, but not in the string. - -The @code{do} and @code{while (0)} are a kludge to make it possible to -write @code{WARN_IF (@var{arg});}, which the resemblance of -@code{WARN_IF} to a function would make C programmers want to do; see -@ref{Swallowing the Semicolon}. - -Stringification in C involves more than putting double-quote characters -around the fragment. The preprocessor backslash-escapes the quotes -surrounding embedded string constants, and all backslashes within string and -character constants, in order to get a valid C string constant with the -proper contents. Thus, stringifying @code{@w{p = "foo\n";}} results in -@t{@w{"p = \"foo\\n\";"}}. However, backslashes that are not inside string -or character constants are not duplicated: @samp{\n} by itself -stringifies to @t{"\n"}. - -All leading and trailing whitespace in text being stringified is -ignored. Any sequence of whitespace in the middle of the text is -converted to a single space in the stringified result. Comments are -replaced by whitespace long before stringification happens, so they -never appear in stringified text. - -There is no way to convert a macro argument into a character constant. - -If you want to stringify the result of expansion of a macro argument, -you have to use two levels of macros. - -@smallexample -#define xstr(s) str(s) -#define str(s) #s -#define foo 4 -str (foo) - @expansion{} "foo" -xstr (foo) - @expansion{} xstr (4) - @expansion{} str (4) - @expansion{} "4" -@end smallexample - -@code{s} is stringified when it is used in @code{str}, so it is not -macro-expanded first. But @code{s} is an ordinary argument to -@code{xstr}, so it is completely macro-expanded before @code{xstr} -itself is expanded (@pxref{Argument Prescan}). Therefore, by the time -@code{str} gets to its argument, it has already been macro-expanded. - -@node Concatenation -@section Concatenation -@cindex concatenation -@cindex token pasting -@cindex token concatenation -@cindex @samp{##} operator - -It is often useful to merge two tokens into one while expanding macros. -This is called @dfn{token pasting} or @dfn{token concatenation}. The -@samp{##} preprocessing operator performs token pasting. When a macro -is expanded, the two tokens on either side of each @samp{##} operator -are combined into a single token, which then replaces the @samp{##} and -the two original tokens in the macro expansion. Usually both will be -identifiers, or one will be an identifier and the other a preprocessing -number. When pasted, they make a longer identifier. This isn't the -only valid case. It is also possible to concatenate two numbers (or a -number and a name, such as @code{1.5} and @code{e3}) into a number. -Also, multi-character operators such as @code{+=} can be formed by -token pasting. - -However, two tokens that don't together form a valid token cannot be -pasted together. For example, you cannot concatenate @code{x} with -@code{+} in either order. If you try, the preprocessor issues a warning -and emits the two tokens. Whether it puts white space between the -tokens is undefined. It is common to find unnecessary uses of @samp{##} -in complex macros. If you get this warning, it is likely that you can -simply remove the @samp{##}. - -Both the tokens combined by @samp{##} could come from the macro body, -but you could just as well write them as one token in the first place. -Token pasting is most useful when one or both of the tokens comes from a -macro argument. If either of the tokens next to an @samp{##} is a -parameter name, it is replaced by its actual argument before @samp{##} -executes. As with stringification, the actual argument is not -macro-expanded first. If the argument is empty, that @samp{##} has no -effect. - -Keep in mind that the C preprocessor converts comments to whitespace -before macros are even considered. Therefore, you cannot create a -comment by concatenating @samp{/} and @samp{*}. You can put as much -whitespace between @samp{##} and its operands as you like, including -comments, and you can put comments in arguments that will be -concatenated. However, it is an error if @samp{##} appears at either -end of a macro body. - -Consider a C program that interprets named commands. There probably -needs to be a table of commands, perhaps an array of structures declared -as follows: - -@smallexample -@group -struct command -@{ - char *name; - void (*function) (void); -@}; -@end group - -@group -struct command commands[] = -@{ - @{ "quit", quit_command @}, - @{ "help", help_command @}, - @dots{} -@}; -@end group -@end smallexample - -It would be cleaner not to have to give each command name twice, once in -the string constant and once in the function name. A macro which takes the -name of a command as an argument can make this unnecessary. The string -constant can be created with stringification, and the function name by -concatenating the argument with @samp{_command}. Here is how it is done: - -@smallexample -#define COMMAND(NAME) @{ #NAME, NAME ## _command @} - -struct command commands[] = -@{ - COMMAND (quit), - COMMAND (help), - @dots{} -@}; -@end smallexample - -@node Variadic Macros -@section Variadic Macros -@cindex variable number of arguments -@cindex macros with variable arguments -@cindex variadic macros - -A macro can be declared to accept a variable number of arguments much as -a function can. The syntax for defining the macro is similar to that of -a function. Here is an example: - -@smallexample -#define eprintf(@dots{}) fprintf (stderr, __VA_ARGS__) -@end smallexample - -This kind of macro is called @dfn{variadic}. When the macro is invoked, -all the tokens in its argument list after the last named argument (this -macro has none), including any commas, become the @dfn{variable -argument}. This sequence of tokens replaces the identifier -@code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}} in the macro body wherever it appears. Thus, we -have this expansion: - -@smallexample -eprintf ("%s:%d: ", input_file, lineno) - @expansion{} fprintf (stderr, "%s:%d: ", input_file, lineno) -@end smallexample - -The variable argument is completely macro-expanded before it is inserted -into the macro expansion, just like an ordinary argument. You may use -the @samp{#} and @samp{##} operators to stringify the variable argument -or to paste its leading or trailing token with another token. (But see -below for an important special case for @samp{##}.) - -If your macro is complicated, you may want a more descriptive name for -the variable argument than @code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}}. CPP permits -this, as an extension. You may write an argument name immediately -before the @samp{@dots{}}; that name is used for the variable argument. -The @code{eprintf} macro above could be written - -@smallexample -#define eprintf(args@dots{}) fprintf (stderr, args) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -using this extension. You cannot use @code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}} and this -extension in the same macro. - -You can have named arguments as well as variable arguments in a variadic -macro. We could define @code{eprintf} like this, instead: - -@smallexample -#define eprintf(format, @dots{}) fprintf (stderr, format, __VA_ARGS__) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -This formulation looks more descriptive, but unfortunately it is less -flexible: you must now supply at least one argument after the format -string. In standard C, you cannot omit the comma separating the named -argument from the variable arguments. Furthermore, if you leave the -variable argument empty, you will get a syntax error, because -there will be an extra comma after the format string. - -@smallexample -eprintf("success!\n", ); - @expansion{} fprintf(stderr, "success!\n", ); -@end smallexample - -GNU CPP has a pair of extensions which deal with this problem. First, -you are allowed to leave the variable argument out entirely: - -@smallexample -eprintf ("success!\n") - @expansion{} fprintf(stderr, "success!\n", ); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -Second, the @samp{##} token paste operator has a special meaning when -placed between a comma and a variable argument. If you write - -@smallexample -#define eprintf(format, @dots{}) fprintf (stderr, format, ##__VA_ARGS__) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -and the variable argument is left out when the @code{eprintf} macro is -used, then the comma before the @samp{##} will be deleted. This does -@emph{not} happen if you pass an empty argument, nor does it happen if -the token preceding @samp{##} is anything other than a comma. - -@smallexample -eprintf ("success!\n") - @expansion{} fprintf(stderr, "success!\n"); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -The above explanation is ambiguous about the case where the only macro -parameter is a variable arguments parameter, as it is meaningless to -try to distinguish whether no argument at all is an empty argument or -a missing argument. In this case the C99 standard is clear that the -comma must remain, however the existing GCC extension used to swallow -the comma. So CPP retains the comma when conforming to a specific C -standard, and drops it otherwise. - -C99 mandates that the only place the identifier @code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}} -can appear is in the replacement list of a variadic macro. It may not -be used as a macro name, macro argument name, or within a different type -of macro. It may also be forbidden in open text; the standard is -ambiguous. We recommend you avoid using it except for its defined -purpose. - -Variadic macros are a new feature in C99. GNU CPP has supported them -for a long time, but only with a named variable argument -(@samp{args@dots{}}, not @samp{@dots{}} and @code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}}). If you are -concerned with portability to previous versions of GCC, you should use -only named variable arguments. On the other hand, if you are concerned -with portability to other conforming implementations of C99, you should -use only @code{@w{__VA_ARGS__}}. - -Previous versions of CPP implemented the comma-deletion extension -much more generally. We have restricted it in this release to minimize -the differences from C99. To get the same effect with both this and -previous versions of GCC, the token preceding the special @samp{##} must -be a comma, and there must be white space between that comma and -whatever comes immediately before it: - -@smallexample -#define eprintf(format, args@dots{}) fprintf (stderr, format , ##args) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -@xref{Differences from previous versions}, for the gory details. - -@node Predefined Macros -@section Predefined Macros - -@cindex predefined macros -Several object-like macros are predefined; you use them without -supplying their definitions. They fall into three classes: standard, -common, and system-specific. - -In C++, there is a fourth category, the named operators. They act like -predefined macros, but you cannot undefine them. - -@menu -* Standard Predefined Macros:: -* Common Predefined Macros:: -* System-specific Predefined Macros:: -* C++ Named Operators:: -@end menu - -@node Standard Predefined Macros -@subsection Standard Predefined Macros -@cindex standard predefined macros. - -The standard predefined macros are specified by the relevant -language standards, so they are available with all compilers that -implement those standards. Older compilers may not provide all of -them. Their names all start with double underscores. - -@table @code -@item __FILE__ -This macro expands to the name of the current input file, in the form of -a C string constant. This is the path by which the preprocessor opened -the file, not the short name specified in @samp{#include} or as the -input file name argument. For example, -@code{"/usr/local/include/myheader.h"} is a possible expansion of this -macro. - -@item __LINE__ -This macro expands to the current input line number, in the form of a -decimal integer constant. While we call it a predefined macro, it's -a pretty strange macro, since its ``definition'' changes with each -new line of source code. -@end table - -@code{__FILE__} and @code{__LINE__} are useful in generating an error -message to report an inconsistency detected by the program; the message -can state the source line at which the inconsistency was detected. For -example, - -@smallexample -fprintf (stderr, "Internal error: " - "negative string length " - "%d at %s, line %d.", - length, __FILE__, __LINE__); -@end smallexample - -An @samp{#include} directive changes the expansions of @code{__FILE__} -and @code{__LINE__} to correspond to the included file. At the end of -that file, when processing resumes on the input file that contained -the @samp{#include} directive, the expansions of @code{__FILE__} and -@code{__LINE__} revert to the values they had before the -@samp{#include} (but @code{__LINE__} is then incremented by one as -processing moves to the line after the @samp{#include}). - -A @samp{#line} directive changes @code{__LINE__}, and may change -@code{__FILE__} as well. @xref{Line Control}. - -C99 introduces @code{__func__}, and GCC has provided @code{__FUNCTION__} -for a long time. Both of these are strings containing the name of the -current function (there are slight semantic differences; see the GCC -manual). Neither of them is a macro; the preprocessor does not know the -name of the current function. They tend to be useful in conjunction -with @code{__FILE__} and @code{__LINE__}, though. - -@table @code - -@item __DATE__ -This macro expands to a string constant that describes the date on which -the preprocessor is being run. The string constant contains eleven -characters and looks like @code{@w{"Feb 12 1996"}}. If the day of the -month is less than 10, it is padded with a space on the left. - -If GCC cannot determine the current date, it will emit a warning message -(once per compilation) and @code{__DATE__} will expand to -@code{@w{"??? ?? ????"}}. - -@item __TIME__ -This macro expands to a string constant that describes the time at -which the preprocessor is being run. The string constant contains -eight characters and looks like @code{"23:59:01"}. - -If GCC cannot determine the current time, it will emit a warning message -(once per compilation) and @code{__TIME__} will expand to -@code{"??:??:??"}. - -@item __STDC__ -In normal operation, this macro expands to the constant 1, to signify -that this compiler conforms to ISO Standard C@. If GNU CPP is used with -a compiler other than GCC, this is not necessarily true; however, the -preprocessor always conforms to the standard unless the -@option{-traditional-cpp} option is used. - -This macro is not defined if the @option{-traditional-cpp} option is used. - -On some hosts, the system compiler uses a different convention, where -@code{__STDC__} is normally 0, but is 1 if the user specifies strict -conformance to the C Standard. CPP follows the host convention when -processing system header files, but when processing user files -@code{__STDC__} is always 1. This has been reported to cause problems; -for instance, some versions of Solaris provide X Windows headers that -expect @code{__STDC__} to be either undefined or 1. @xref{Invocation}. - -@item __STDC_VERSION__ -This macro expands to the C Standard's version number, a long integer -constant of the form @code{@var{yyyy}@var{mm}L} where @var{yyyy} and -@var{mm} are the year and month of the Standard version. This signifies -which version of the C Standard the compiler conforms to. Like -@code{__STDC__}, this is not necessarily accurate for the entire -implementation, unless GNU CPP is being used with GCC@. - -The value @code{199409L} signifies the 1989 C standard as amended in -1994, which is the current default; the value @code{199901L} signifies -the 1999 revision of the C standard. Support for the 1999 revision is -not yet complete. - -This macro is not defined if the @option{-traditional-cpp} option is -used, nor when compiling C++ or Objective-C@. - -@item __STDC_HOSTED__ -This macro is defined, with value 1, if the compiler's target is a -@dfn{hosted environment}. A hosted environment has the complete -facilities of the standard C library available. - -@item __cplusplus -This macro is defined when the C++ compiler is in use. You can use -@code{__cplusplus} to test whether a header is compiled by a C compiler -or a C++ compiler. This macro is similar to @code{__STDC_VERSION__}, in -that it expands to a version number. A fully conforming implementation -of the 1998 C++ standard will define this macro to @code{199711L}. The -GNU C++ compiler is not yet fully conforming, so it uses @code{1} -instead. It is hoped to complete the implementation of standard C++ -in the near future. - -@item __OBJC__ -This macro is defined, with value 1, when the Objective-C compiler is in -use. You can use @code{__OBJC__} to test whether a header is compiled -by a C compiler or a Objective-C compiler. - -@item __ASSEMBLER__ -This macro is defined with value 1 when preprocessing assembly -language. - -@end table - -@node Common Predefined Macros -@subsection Common Predefined Macros -@cindex common predefined macros - -The common predefined macros are GNU C extensions. They are available -with the same meanings regardless of the machine or operating system on -which you are using GNU C@. Their names all start with double -underscores. - -@table @code - -@item __GNUC__ -@itemx __GNUC_MINOR__ -@itemx __GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__ -These macros are defined by all GNU compilers that use the C -preprocessor: C, C++, and Objective-C@. Their values are the major -version, minor version, and patch level of the compiler, as integer -constants. For example, GCC 3.2.1 will define @code{__GNUC__} to 3, -@code{__GNUC_MINOR__} to 2, and @code{__GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__} to 1. These -macros are also defined if you invoke the preprocessor directly. - -@code{__GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__} is new to GCC 3.0; it is also present in the -widely-used development snapshots leading up to 3.0 (which identify -themselves as GCC 2.96 or 2.97, depending on which snapshot you have). - -If all you need to know is whether or not your program is being compiled -by GCC, or a non-GCC compiler that claims to accept the GNU C dialects, -you can simply test @code{__GNUC__}. If you need to write code -which depends on a specific version, you must be more careful. Each -time the minor version is increased, the patch level is reset to zero; -each time the major version is increased (which happens rarely), the -minor version and patch level are reset. If you wish to use the -predefined macros directly in the conditional, you will need to write it -like this: - -@smallexample -/* @r{Test for GCC > 3.2.0} */ -#if __GNUC__ > 3 || \ - (__GNUC__ == 3 && (__GNUC_MINOR__ > 2 || \ - (__GNUC_MINOR__ == 2 && \ - __GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__ > 0)) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -Another approach is to use the predefined macros to -calculate a single number, then compare that against a threshold: - -@smallexample -#define GCC_VERSION (__GNUC__ * 10000 \ - + __GNUC_MINOR__ * 100 \ - + __GNUC_PATCHLEVEL__) -@dots{} -/* @r{Test for GCC > 3.2.0} */ -#if GCC_VERSION > 30200 -@end smallexample - -@noindent -Many people find this form easier to understand. - -@item __GNUG__ -The GNU C++ compiler defines this. Testing it is equivalent to -testing @code{@w{(__GNUC__ && __cplusplus)}}. - -@item __STRICT_ANSI__ -GCC defines this macro if and only if the @option{-ansi} switch, or a -@option{-std} switch specifying strict conformance to some version of ISO C, -was specified when GCC was invoked. It is defined to @samp{1}. -This macro exists primarily to direct GNU libc's header files to -restrict their definitions to the minimal set found in the 1989 C -standard. - -@item __BASE_FILE__ -This macro expands to the name of the main input file, in the form -of a C string constant. This is the source file that was specified -on the command line of the preprocessor or C compiler. - -@item __INCLUDE_LEVEL__ -This macro expands to a decimal integer constant that represents the -depth of nesting in include files. The value of this macro is -incremented on every @samp{#include} directive and decremented at the -end of every included file. It starts out at 0, it's value within the -base file specified on the command line. - -@item __ELF__ -This macro is defined if the target uses the ELF object format. - -@item __VERSION__ -This macro expands to a string constant which describes the version of -the compiler in use. You should not rely on its contents having any -particular form, but it can be counted on to contain at least the -release number. - -@c APPLE LOCAL begin radar 4224728 -@item __PIC__ -This macro is defined when gcc is generating pic code for darwin. -@c APPLE LOCAL end radar 4224728 - -@item __OPTIMIZE__ -@itemx __OPTIMIZE_SIZE__ -@itemx __NO_INLINE__ -These macros describe the compilation mode. @code{__OPTIMIZE__} is -defined in all optimizing compilations. @code{__OPTIMIZE_SIZE__} is -defined if the compiler is optimizing for size, not speed. -@code{__NO_INLINE__} is defined if no functions will be inlined into -their callers (when not optimizing, or when inlining has been -specifically disabled by @option{-fno-inline}). - -These macros cause certain GNU header files to provide optimized -definitions, using macros or inline functions, of system library -functions. You should not use these macros in any way unless you make -sure that programs will execute with the same effect whether or not they -are defined. If they are defined, their value is 1. - -@item __GNUC_GNU_INLINE__ -GCC defines this macro if functions declared @code{inline} will be -handled in GCC's traditional gnu89 mode. In this mode an @code{extern -inline} function will never be compiled as a standalone function, and -an @code{inline} function which is neither @code{extern} nor -@code{static} will always be compiled as a standalone function. - -@item __GNUC_STDC_INLINE__ -GCC defines this macro if functions declared @code{inline} will be -handled according to the ISO C99 standard. In this mode an -@code{extern inline} function will always be compiled as a standalone -externally visible function, and an @code{inline} function which is -neither @code{extern} nor @code{static} will never be compiled as a -standalone function. - -If this macro is defined, GCC supports the @code{gnu_inline} function -attribute as a way to always get the gnu89 behaviour. Support for -this and @code{__GNUC_GNU_INLINE__} was added in GCC 4.1.3. If -neither macro is defined, an older version of GCC is being used: -@code{inline} functions will be compiled in gnu89 mode, and the -@code{gnu_inline} function attribute will not be recognized. - -@item __CHAR_UNSIGNED__ -GCC defines this macro if and only if the data type @code{char} is -unsigned on the target machine. It exists to cause the standard header -file @file{limits.h} to work correctly. You should not use this macro -yourself; instead, refer to the standard macros defined in @file{limits.h}. - -@item __WCHAR_UNSIGNED__ -Like @code{__CHAR_UNSIGNED__}, this macro is defined if and only if the -data type @code{wchar_t} is unsigned and the front-end is in C++ mode. - -@item __REGISTER_PREFIX__ -This macro expands to a single token (not a string constant) which is -the prefix applied to CPU register names in assembly language for this -target. You can use it to write assembly that is usable in multiple -environments. For example, in the @code{m68k-aout} environment it -expands to nothing, but in the @code{m68k-coff} environment it expands -to a single @samp{%}. - -@item __USER_LABEL_PREFIX__ -This macro expands to a single token which is the prefix applied to -user labels (symbols visible to C code) in assembly. For example, in -the @code{m68k-aout} environment it expands to an @samp{_}, but in the -@code{m68k-coff} environment it expands to nothing. - -This macro will have the correct definition even if -@option{-f(no-)underscores} is in use, but it will not be correct if -target-specific options that adjust this prefix are used (e.g.@: the -OSF/rose @option{-mno-underscores} option). - -@item __SIZE_TYPE__ -@itemx __PTRDIFF_TYPE__ -@itemx __WCHAR_TYPE__ -@itemx __WINT_TYPE__ -@itemx __INTMAX_TYPE__ -@itemx __UINTMAX_TYPE__ -These macros are defined to the correct underlying types for the -@code{size_t}, @code{ptrdiff_t}, @code{wchar_t}, @code{wint_t}, -@code{intmax_t}, and @code{uintmax_t} -typedefs, respectively. They exist to make the standard header files -@file{stddef.h} and @file{wchar.h} work correctly. You should not use -these macros directly; instead, include the appropriate headers and use -the typedefs. - -@item __CHAR_BIT__ -Defined to the number of bits used in the representation of the -@code{char} data type. It exists to make the standard header given -numerical limits work correctly. You should not use -this macro directly; instead, include the appropriate headers. - -@item __SCHAR_MAX__ -@itemx __WCHAR_MAX__ -@itemx __SHRT_MAX__ -@itemx __INT_MAX__ -@itemx __LONG_MAX__ -@itemx __LONG_LONG_MAX__ -@itemx __INTMAX_MAX__ -Defined to the maximum value of the @code{signed char}, @code{wchar_t}, -@code{signed short}, -@code{signed int}, @code{signed long}, @code{signed long long}, and -@code{intmax_t} types -respectively. They exist to make the standard header given numerical limits -work correctly. You should not use these macros directly; instead, include -the appropriate headers. - -@item __DEPRECATED -This macro is defined, with value 1, when compiling a C++ source file -with warnings about deprecated constructs enabled. These warnings are -enabled by default, but can be disabled with @option{-Wno-deprecated}. - -@item __EXCEPTIONS -This macro is defined, with value 1, when compiling a C++ source file -with exceptions enabled. If @option{-fno-exceptions} was used when -compiling the file, then this macro will not be defined. - -@item __USING_SJLJ_EXCEPTIONS__ -This macro is defined, with value 1, if the compiler uses the old -mechanism based on @code{setjmp} and @code{longjmp} for exception -handling. - -@item __GXX_WEAK__ -This macro is defined when compiling a C++ source file. It has the -value 1 if the compiler will use weak symbols, COMDAT sections, or -other similar techniques to collapse symbols with ``vague linkage'' -that are defined in multiple translation units. If the compiler will -not collapse such symbols, this macro is defined with value 0. In -general, user code should not need to make use of this macro; the -purpose of this macro is to ease implementation of the C++ runtime -library provided with G++. - -@item __NEXT_RUNTIME__ -This macro is defined, with value 1, if (and only if) the NeXT runtime -(as in @option{-fnext-runtime}) is in use for Objective-C@. If the GNU -runtime is used, this macro is not defined, so that you can use this -macro to determine which runtime (NeXT or GNU) is being used. - -@item __LP64__ -@itemx _LP64 -These macros are defined, with value 1, if (and only if) the compilation -is for a target where @code{long int} and pointer both use 64-bits and -@code{int} uses 32-bit. - -@item __SSP__ -This macro is defined, with value 1, when @option{-fstack-protector} is in -use. - -@item __SSP_ALL__ -This macro is defined, with value 2, when @option{-fstack-protector-all} is -in use. - -@item __TIMESTAMP__ -This macro expands to a string constant that describes the date and time -of the last modification of the current source file. The string constant -contains abbreviated day of the week, month, day of the month, time in -hh:mm:ss form, year and looks like @code{@w{"Sun Sep 16 01:03:52 1973"}}. -If the day of the month is less than 10, it is padded with a space on the left. - -If GCC cannot determine the current date, it will emit a warning message -(once per compilation) and @code{__TIMESTAMP__} will expand to -@code{@w{"??? ??? ?? ??:??:?? ????"}}. - -@end table - -@node System-specific Predefined Macros -@subsection System-specific Predefined Macros - -@cindex system-specific predefined macros -@cindex predefined macros, system-specific -@cindex reserved namespace - -The C preprocessor normally predefines several macros that indicate what -type of system and machine is in use. They are obviously different on -each target supported by GCC@. This manual, being for all systems and -machines, cannot tell you what their names are, but you can use -@command{cpp -dM} to see them all. @xref{Invocation}. All system-specific -predefined macros expand to the constant 1, so you can test them with -either @samp{#ifdef} or @samp{#if}. - -The C standard requires that all system-specific macros be part of the -@dfn{reserved namespace}. All names which begin with two underscores, -or an underscore and a capital letter, are reserved for the compiler and -library to use as they wish. However, historically system-specific -macros have had names with no special prefix; for instance, it is common -to find @code{unix} defined on Unix systems. For all such macros, GCC -provides a parallel macro with two underscores added at the beginning -and the end. If @code{unix} is defined, @code{__unix__} will be defined -too. There will never be more than two underscores; the parallel of -@code{_mips} is @code{__mips__}. - -When the @option{-ansi} option, or any @option{-std} option that -requests strict conformance, is given to the compiler, all the -system-specific predefined macros outside the reserved namespace are -suppressed. The parallel macros, inside the reserved namespace, remain -defined. - -We are slowly phasing out all predefined macros which are outside the -reserved namespace. You should never use them in new programs, and we -encourage you to correct older code to use the parallel macros whenever -you find it. We don't recommend you use the system-specific macros that -are in the reserved namespace, either. It is better in the long run to -check specifically for features you need, using a tool such as -@command{autoconf}. - -@node C++ Named Operators -@subsection C++ Named Operators -@cindex named operators -@cindex C++ named operators -@cindex iso646.h - -In C++, there are eleven keywords which are simply alternate spellings -of operators normally written with punctuation. These keywords are -treated as such even in the preprocessor. They function as operators in -@samp{#if}, and they cannot be defined as macros or poisoned. In C, you -can request that those keywords take their C++ meaning by including -@file{iso646.h}. That header defines each one as a normal object-like -macro expanding to the appropriate punctuator. - -These are the named operators and their corresponding punctuators: - -@multitable {Named Operator} {Punctuator} -@item Named Operator @tab Punctuator -@item @code{and} @tab @code{&&} -@item @code{and_eq} @tab @code{&=} -@item @code{bitand} @tab @code{&} -@item @code{bitor} @tab @code{|} -@item @code{compl} @tab @code{~} -@item @code{not} @tab @code{!} -@item @code{not_eq} @tab @code{!=} -@item @code{or} @tab @code{||} -@item @code{or_eq} @tab @code{|=} -@item @code{xor} @tab @code{^} -@item @code{xor_eq} @tab @code{^=} -@end multitable - -@node Undefining and Redefining Macros -@section Undefining and Redefining Macros -@cindex undefining macros -@cindex redefining macros -@findex #undef - -If a macro ceases to be useful, it may be @dfn{undefined} with the -@samp{#undef} directive. @samp{#undef} takes a single argument, the -name of the macro to undefine. You use the bare macro name, even if the -macro is function-like. It is an error if anything appears on the line -after the macro name. @samp{#undef} has no effect if the name is not a -macro. - -@smallexample -#define FOO 4 -x = FOO; @expansion{} x = 4; -#undef FOO -x = FOO; @expansion{} x = FOO; -@end smallexample - -Once a macro has been undefined, that identifier may be @dfn{redefined} -as a macro by a subsequent @samp{#define} directive. The new definition -need not have any resemblance to the old definition. - -However, if an identifier which is currently a macro is redefined, then -the new definition must be @dfn{effectively the same} as the old one. -Two macro definitions are effectively the same if: -@itemize @bullet -@item Both are the same type of macro (object- or function-like). -@item All the tokens of the replacement list are the same. -@item If there are any parameters, they are the same. -@item Whitespace appears in the same places in both. It need not be -exactly the same amount of whitespace, though. Remember that comments -count as whitespace. -@end itemize - -@noindent -These definitions are effectively the same: -@smallexample -#define FOUR (2 + 2) -#define FOUR (2 + 2) -#define FOUR (2 /* @r{two} */ + 2) -@end smallexample -@noindent -but these are not: -@smallexample -#define FOUR (2 + 2) -#define FOUR ( 2+2 ) -#define FOUR (2 * 2) -#define FOUR(score,and,seven,years,ago) (2 + 2) -@end smallexample - -If a macro is redefined with a definition that is not effectively the -same as the old one, the preprocessor issues a warning and changes the -macro to use the new definition. If the new definition is effectively -the same, the redefinition is silently ignored. This allows, for -instance, two different headers to define a common macro. The -preprocessor will only complain if the definitions do not match. - -@node Directives Within Macro Arguments -@section Directives Within Macro Arguments -@cindex macro arguments and directives - -Occasionally it is convenient to use preprocessor directives within -the arguments of a macro. The C and C++ standards declare that -behavior in these cases is undefined. - -Versions of CPP prior to 3.2 would reject such constructs with an -error message. This was the only syntactic difference between normal -functions and function-like macros, so it seemed attractive to remove -this limitation, and people would often be surprised that they could -not use macros in this way. Moreover, sometimes people would use -conditional compilation in the argument list to a normal library -function like @samp{printf}, only to find that after a library upgrade -@samp{printf} had changed to be a function-like macro, and their code -would no longer compile. So from version 3.2 we changed CPP to -successfully process arbitrary directives within macro arguments in -exactly the same way as it would have processed the directive were the -function-like macro invocation not present. - -If, within a macro invocation, that macro is redefined, then the new -definition takes effect in time for argument pre-expansion, but the -original definition is still used for argument replacement. Here is a -pathological example: - -@smallexample -#define f(x) x x -f (1 -#undef f -#define f 2 -f) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -which expands to - -@smallexample -1 2 1 2 -@end smallexample - -@noindent -with the semantics described above. - -@node Macro Pitfalls -@section Macro Pitfalls -@cindex problems with macros -@cindex pitfalls of macros - -In this section we describe some special rules that apply to macros and -macro expansion, and point out certain cases in which the rules have -counter-intuitive consequences that you must watch out for. - -@menu -* Misnesting:: -* Operator Precedence Problems:: -* Swallowing the Semicolon:: -* Duplication of Side Effects:: -* Self-Referential Macros:: -* Argument Prescan:: -* Newlines in Arguments:: -@end menu - -@node Misnesting -@subsection Misnesting - -When a macro is called with arguments, the arguments are substituted -into the macro body and the result is checked, together with the rest of -the input file, for more macro calls. It is possible to piece together -a macro call coming partially from the macro body and partially from the -arguments. For example, - -@smallexample -#define twice(x) (2*(x)) -#define call_with_1(x) x(1) -call_with_1 (twice) - @expansion{} twice(1) - @expansion{} (2*(1)) -@end smallexample - -Macro definitions do not have to have balanced parentheses. By writing -an unbalanced open parenthesis in a macro body, it is possible to create -a macro call that begins inside the macro body but ends outside of it. -For example, - -@smallexample -#define strange(file) fprintf (file, "%s %d", -@dots{} -strange(stderr) p, 35) - @expansion{} fprintf (stderr, "%s %d", p, 35) -@end smallexample - -The ability to piece together a macro call can be useful, but the use of -unbalanced open parentheses in a macro body is just confusing, and -should be avoided. - -@node Operator Precedence Problems -@subsection Operator Precedence Problems -@cindex parentheses in macro bodies - -You may have noticed that in most of the macro definition examples shown -above, each occurrence of a macro argument name had parentheses around -it. In addition, another pair of parentheses usually surround the -entire macro definition. Here is why it is best to write macros that -way. - -Suppose you define a macro as follows, - -@smallexample -#define ceil_div(x, y) (x + y - 1) / y -@end smallexample - -@noindent -whose purpose is to divide, rounding up. (One use for this operation is -to compute how many @code{int} objects are needed to hold a certain -number of @code{char} objects.) Then suppose it is used as follows: - -@smallexample -a = ceil_div (b & c, sizeof (int)); - @expansion{} a = (b & c + sizeof (int) - 1) / sizeof (int); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -This does not do what is intended. The operator-precedence rules of -C make it equivalent to this: - -@smallexample -a = (b & (c + sizeof (int) - 1)) / sizeof (int); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -What we want is this: - -@smallexample -a = ((b & c) + sizeof (int) - 1)) / sizeof (int); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -Defining the macro as - -@smallexample -#define ceil_div(x, y) ((x) + (y) - 1) / (y) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -provides the desired result. - -Unintended grouping can result in another way. Consider @code{sizeof -ceil_div(1, 2)}. That has the appearance of a C expression that would -compute the size of the type of @code{ceil_div (1, 2)}, but in fact it -means something very different. Here is what it expands to: - -@smallexample -sizeof ((1) + (2) - 1) / (2) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -This would take the size of an integer and divide it by two. The -precedence rules have put the division outside the @code{sizeof} when it -was intended to be inside. - -Parentheses around the entire macro definition prevent such problems. -Here, then, is the recommended way to define @code{ceil_div}: - -@smallexample -#define ceil_div(x, y) (((x) + (y) - 1) / (y)) -@end smallexample - -@node Swallowing the Semicolon -@subsection Swallowing the Semicolon -@cindex semicolons (after macro calls) - -Often it is desirable to define a macro that expands into a compound -statement. Consider, for example, the following macro, that advances a -pointer (the argument @code{p} says where to find it) across whitespace -characters: - -@smallexample -#define SKIP_SPACES(p, limit) \ -@{ char *lim = (limit); \ - while (p < lim) @{ \ - if (*p++ != ' ') @{ \ - p--; break; @}@}@} -@end smallexample - -@noindent -Here backslash-newline is used to split the macro definition, which must -be a single logical line, so that it resembles the way such code would -be laid out if not part of a macro definition. - -A call to this macro might be @code{SKIP_SPACES (p, lim)}. Strictly -speaking, the call expands to a compound statement, which is a complete -statement with no need for a semicolon to end it. However, since it -looks like a function call, it minimizes confusion if you can use it -like a function call, writing a semicolon afterward, as in -@code{SKIP_SPACES (p, lim);} - -This can cause trouble before @code{else} statements, because the -semicolon is actually a null statement. Suppose you write - -@smallexample -if (*p != 0) - SKIP_SPACES (p, lim); -else @dots{} -@end smallexample - -@noindent -The presence of two statements---the compound statement and a null -statement---in between the @code{if} condition and the @code{else} -makes invalid C code. - -The definition of the macro @code{SKIP_SPACES} can be altered to solve -this problem, using a @code{do @dots{} while} statement. Here is how: - -@smallexample -#define SKIP_SPACES(p, limit) \ -do @{ char *lim = (limit); \ - while (p < lim) @{ \ - if (*p++ != ' ') @{ \ - p--; break; @}@}@} \ -while (0) -@end smallexample - -Now @code{SKIP_SPACES (p, lim);} expands into - -@smallexample -do @{@dots{}@} while (0); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -which is one statement. The loop executes exactly once; most compilers -generate no extra code for it. - -@node Duplication of Side Effects -@subsection Duplication of Side Effects - -@cindex side effects (in macro arguments) -@cindex unsafe macros -Many C programs define a macro @code{min}, for ``minimum'', like this: - -@smallexample -#define min(X, Y) ((X) < (Y) ? (X) : (Y)) -@end smallexample - -When you use this macro with an argument containing a side effect, -as shown here, - -@smallexample -next = min (x + y, foo (z)); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -it expands as follows: - -@smallexample -next = ((x + y) < (foo (z)) ? (x + y) : (foo (z))); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -where @code{x + y} has been substituted for @code{X} and @code{foo (z)} -for @code{Y}. - -The function @code{foo} is used only once in the statement as it appears -in the program, but the expression @code{foo (z)} has been substituted -twice into the macro expansion. As a result, @code{foo} might be called -two times when the statement is executed. If it has side effects or if -it takes a long time to compute, the results might not be what you -intended. We say that @code{min} is an @dfn{unsafe} macro. - -The best solution to this problem is to define @code{min} in a way that -computes the value of @code{foo (z)} only once. The C language offers -no standard way to do this, but it can be done with GNU extensions as -follows: - -@smallexample -#define min(X, Y) \ -(@{ typeof (X) x_ = (X); \ - typeof (Y) y_ = (Y); \ - (x_ < y_) ? x_ : y_; @}) -@end smallexample - -The @samp{(@{ @dots{} @})} notation produces a compound statement that -acts as an expression. Its value is the value of its last statement. -This permits us to define local variables and assign each argument to -one. The local variables have underscores after their names to reduce -the risk of conflict with an identifier of wider scope (it is impossible -to avoid this entirely). Now each argument is evaluated exactly once. - -If you do not wish to use GNU C extensions, the only solution is to be -careful when @emph{using} the macro @code{min}. For example, you can -calculate the value of @code{foo (z)}, save it in a variable, and use -that variable in @code{min}: - -@smallexample -@group -#define min(X, Y) ((X) < (Y) ? (X) : (Y)) -@dots{} -@{ - int tem = foo (z); - next = min (x + y, tem); -@} -@end group -@end smallexample - -@noindent -(where we assume that @code{foo} returns type @code{int}). - -@node Self-Referential Macros -@subsection Self-Referential Macros -@cindex self-reference - -A @dfn{self-referential} macro is one whose name appears in its -definition. Recall that all macro definitions are rescanned for more -macros to replace. If the self-reference were considered a use of the -macro, it would produce an infinitely large expansion. To prevent this, -the self-reference is not considered a macro call. It is passed into -the preprocessor output unchanged. Consider an example: - -@smallexample -#define foo (4 + foo) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -where @code{foo} is also a variable in your program. - -Following the ordinary rules, each reference to @code{foo} will expand -into @code{(4 + foo)}; then this will be rescanned and will expand into -@code{(4 + (4 + foo))}; and so on until the computer runs out of memory. - -The self-reference rule cuts this process short after one step, at -@code{(4 + foo)}. Therefore, this macro definition has the possibly -useful effect of causing the program to add 4 to the value of @code{foo} -wherever @code{foo} is referred to. - -In most cases, it is a bad idea to take advantage of this feature. A -person reading the program who sees that @code{foo} is a variable will -not expect that it is a macro as well. The reader will come across the -identifier @code{foo} in the program and think its value should be that -of the variable @code{foo}, whereas in fact the value is four greater. - -One common, useful use of self-reference is to create a macro which -expands to itself. If you write - -@smallexample -#define EPERM EPERM -@end smallexample - -@noindent -then the macro @code{EPERM} expands to @code{EPERM}. Effectively, it is -left alone by the preprocessor whenever it's used in running text. You -can tell that it's a macro with @samp{#ifdef}. You might do this if you -want to define numeric constants with an @code{enum}, but have -@samp{#ifdef} be true for each constant. - -If a macro @code{x} expands to use a macro @code{y}, and the expansion of -@code{y} refers to the macro @code{x}, that is an @dfn{indirect -self-reference} of @code{x}. @code{x} is not expanded in this case -either. Thus, if we have - -@smallexample -#define x (4 + y) -#define y (2 * x) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -then @code{x} and @code{y} expand as follows: - -@smallexample -@group -x @expansion{} (4 + y) - @expansion{} (4 + (2 * x)) - -y @expansion{} (2 * x) - @expansion{} (2 * (4 + y)) -@end group -@end smallexample - -@noindent -Each macro is expanded when it appears in the definition of the other -macro, but not when it indirectly appears in its own definition. - -@node Argument Prescan -@subsection Argument Prescan -@cindex expansion of arguments -@cindex macro argument expansion -@cindex prescan of macro arguments - -Macro arguments are completely macro-expanded before they are -substituted into a macro body, unless they are stringified or pasted -with other tokens. After substitution, the entire macro body, including -the substituted arguments, is scanned again for macros to be expanded. -The result is that the arguments are scanned @emph{twice} to expand -macro calls in them. - -Most of the time, this has no effect. If the argument contained any -macro calls, they are expanded during the first scan. The result -therefore contains no macro calls, so the second scan does not change -it. If the argument were substituted as given, with no prescan, the -single remaining scan would find the same macro calls and produce the -same results. - -You might expect the double scan to change the results when a -self-referential macro is used in an argument of another macro -(@pxref{Self-Referential Macros}): the self-referential macro would be -expanded once in the first scan, and a second time in the second scan. -However, this is not what happens. The self-references that do not -expand in the first scan are marked so that they will not expand in the -second scan either. - -You might wonder, ``Why mention the prescan, if it makes no difference? -And why not skip it and make the preprocessor faster?'' The answer is -that the prescan does make a difference in three special cases: - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Nested calls to a macro. - -We say that @dfn{nested} calls to a macro occur when a macro's argument -contains a call to that very macro. For example, if @code{f} is a macro -that expects one argument, @code{f (f (1))} is a nested pair of calls to -@code{f}. The desired expansion is made by expanding @code{f (1)} and -substituting that into the definition of @code{f}. The prescan causes -the expected result to happen. Without the prescan, @code{f (1)} itself -would be substituted as an argument, and the inner use of @code{f} would -appear during the main scan as an indirect self-reference and would not -be expanded. - -@item -Macros that call other macros that stringify or concatenate. - -If an argument is stringified or concatenated, the prescan does not -occur. If you @emph{want} to expand a macro, then stringify or -concatenate its expansion, you can do that by causing one macro to call -another macro that does the stringification or concatenation. For -instance, if you have - -@smallexample -#define AFTERX(x) X_ ## x -#define XAFTERX(x) AFTERX(x) -#define TABLESIZE 1024 -#define BUFSIZE TABLESIZE -@end smallexample - -then @code{AFTERX(BUFSIZE)} expands to @code{X_BUFSIZE}, and -@code{XAFTERX(BUFSIZE)} expands to @code{X_1024}. (Not to -@code{X_TABLESIZE}. Prescan always does a complete expansion.) - -@item -Macros used in arguments, whose expansions contain unshielded commas. - -This can cause a macro expanded on the second scan to be called with the -wrong number of arguments. Here is an example: - -@smallexample -#define foo a,b -#define bar(x) lose(x) -#define lose(x) (1 + (x)) -@end smallexample - -We would like @code{bar(foo)} to turn into @code{(1 + (foo))}, which -would then turn into @code{(1 + (a,b))}. Instead, @code{bar(foo)} -expands into @code{lose(a,b)}, and you get an error because @code{lose} -requires a single argument. In this case, the problem is easily solved -by the same parentheses that ought to be used to prevent misnesting of -arithmetic operations: - -@smallexample -#define foo (a,b) -@exdent or -#define bar(x) lose((x)) -@end smallexample - -The extra pair of parentheses prevents the comma in @code{foo}'s -definition from being interpreted as an argument separator. - -@end itemize - -@node Newlines in Arguments -@subsection Newlines in Arguments -@cindex newlines in macro arguments - -The invocation of a function-like macro can extend over many logical -lines. However, in the present implementation, the entire expansion -comes out on one line. Thus line numbers emitted by the compiler or -debugger refer to the line the invocation started on, which might be -different to the line containing the argument causing the problem. - -Here is an example illustrating this: - -@smallexample -#define ignore_second_arg(a,b,c) a; c - -ignore_second_arg (foo (), - ignored (), - syntax error); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -The syntax error triggered by the tokens @code{syntax error} results in -an error message citing line three---the line of ignore_second_arg--- -even though the problematic code comes from line five. - -We consider this a bug, and intend to fix it in the near future. - -@node Conditionals -@chapter Conditionals -@cindex conditionals - -A @dfn{conditional} is a directive that instructs the preprocessor to -select whether or not to include a chunk of code in the final token -stream passed to the compiler. Preprocessor conditionals can test -arithmetic expressions, or whether a name is defined as a macro, or both -simultaneously using the special @code{defined} operator. - -A conditional in the C preprocessor resembles in some ways an @code{if} -statement in C, but it is important to understand the difference between -them. The condition in an @code{if} statement is tested during the -execution of your program. Its purpose is to allow your program to -behave differently from run to run, depending on the data it is -operating on. The condition in a preprocessing conditional directive is -tested when your program is compiled. Its purpose is to allow different -code to be included in the program depending on the situation at the -time of compilation. - -However, the distinction is becoming less clear. Modern compilers often -do test @code{if} statements when a program is compiled, if their -conditions are known not to vary at run time, and eliminate code which -can never be executed. If you can count on your compiler to do this, -you may find that your program is more readable if you use @code{if} -statements with constant conditions (perhaps determined by macros). Of -course, you can only use this to exclude code, not type definitions or -other preprocessing directives, and you can only do it if the code -remains syntactically valid when it is not to be used. - -GCC version 3 eliminates this kind of never-executed code even when -not optimizing. Older versions did it only when optimizing. - -@menu -* Conditional Uses:: -* Conditional Syntax:: -* Deleted Code:: -@end menu - -@node Conditional Uses -@section Conditional Uses - -There are three general reasons to use a conditional. - -@itemize @bullet -@item -A program may need to use different code depending on the machine or -operating system it is to run on. In some cases the code for one -operating system may be erroneous on another operating system; for -example, it might refer to data types or constants that do not exist on -the other system. When this happens, it is not enough to avoid -executing the invalid code. Its mere presence will cause the compiler -to reject the program. With a preprocessing conditional, the offending -code can be effectively excised from the program when it is not valid. - -@item -You may want to be able to compile the same source file into two -different programs. One version might make frequent time-consuming -consistency checks on its intermediate data, or print the values of -those data for debugging, and the other not. - -@item -A conditional whose condition is always false is one way to exclude code -from the program but keep it as a sort of comment for future reference. -@end itemize - -Simple programs that do not need system-specific logic or complex -debugging hooks generally will not need to use preprocessing -conditionals. - -@node Conditional Syntax -@section Conditional Syntax - -@findex #if -A conditional in the C preprocessor begins with a @dfn{conditional -directive}: @samp{#if}, @samp{#ifdef} or @samp{#ifndef}. - -@menu -* Ifdef:: -* If:: -* Defined:: -* Else:: -* Elif:: -@end menu - -@node Ifdef -@subsection Ifdef -@findex #ifdef -@findex #endif - -The simplest sort of conditional is - -@smallexample -@group -#ifdef @var{MACRO} - -@var{controlled text} - -#endif /* @var{MACRO} */ -@end group -@end smallexample - -@cindex conditional group -This block is called a @dfn{conditional group}. @var{controlled text} -will be included in the output of the preprocessor if and only if -@var{MACRO} is defined. We say that the conditional @dfn{succeeds} if -@var{MACRO} is defined, @dfn{fails} if it is not. - -The @var{controlled text} inside of a conditional can include -preprocessing directives. They are executed only if the conditional -succeeds. You can nest conditional groups inside other conditional -groups, but they must be completely nested. In other words, -@samp{#endif} always matches the nearest @samp{#ifdef} (or -@samp{#ifndef}, or @samp{#if}). Also, you cannot start a conditional -group in one file and end it in another. - -Even if a conditional fails, the @var{controlled text} inside it is -still run through initial transformations and tokenization. Therefore, -it must all be lexically valid C@. Normally the only way this matters is -that all comments and string literals inside a failing conditional group -must still be properly ended. - -The comment following the @samp{#endif} is not required, but it is a -good practice if there is a lot of @var{controlled text}, because it -helps people match the @samp{#endif} to the corresponding @samp{#ifdef}. -Older programs sometimes put @var{MACRO} directly after the -@samp{#endif} without enclosing it in a comment. This is invalid code -according to the C standard. CPP accepts it with a warning. It -never affects which @samp{#ifndef} the @samp{#endif} matches. - -@findex #ifndef -Sometimes you wish to use some code if a macro is @emph{not} defined. -You can do this by writing @samp{#ifndef} instead of @samp{#ifdef}. -One common use of @samp{#ifndef} is to include code only the first -time a header file is included. @xref{Once-Only Headers}. - -Macro definitions can vary between compilations for several reasons. -Here are some samples. - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Some macros are predefined on each kind of machine -(@pxref{System-specific Predefined Macros}). This allows you to provide -code specially tuned for a particular machine. - -@item -System header files define more macros, associated with the features -they implement. You can test these macros with conditionals to avoid -using a system feature on a machine where it is not implemented. - -@item -Macros can be defined or undefined with the @option{-D} and @option{-U} -command line options when you compile the program. You can arrange to -compile the same source file into two different programs by choosing a -macro name to specify which program you want, writing conditionals to -test whether or how this macro is defined, and then controlling the -state of the macro with command line options, perhaps set in the -Makefile. @xref{Invocation}. - -@item -Your program might have a special header file (often called -@file{config.h}) that is adjusted when the program is compiled. It can -define or not define macros depending on the features of the system and -the desired capabilities of the program. The adjustment can be -automated by a tool such as @command{autoconf}, or done by hand. -@end itemize - -@node If -@subsection If - -The @samp{#if} directive allows you to test the value of an arithmetic -expression, rather than the mere existence of one macro. Its syntax is - -@smallexample -@group -#if @var{expression} - -@var{controlled text} - -#endif /* @var{expression} */ -@end group -@end smallexample - -@var{expression} is a C expression of integer type, subject to stringent -restrictions. It may contain - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Integer constants. - -@item -Character constants, which are interpreted as they would be in normal -code. - -@item -Arithmetic operators for addition, subtraction, multiplication, -division, bitwise operations, shifts, comparisons, and logical -operations (@code{&&} and @code{||}). The latter two obey the usual -short-circuiting rules of standard C@. - -@item -Macros. All macros in the expression are expanded before actual -computation of the expression's value begins. - -@item -Uses of the @code{defined} operator, which lets you check whether macros -are defined in the middle of an @samp{#if}. - -@item -Identifiers that are not macros, which are all considered to be the -number zero. This allows you to write @code{@w{#if MACRO}} instead of -@code{@w{#ifdef MACRO}}, if you know that MACRO, when defined, will -always have a nonzero value. Function-like macros used without their -function call parentheses are also treated as zero. - -In some contexts this shortcut is undesirable. The @option{-Wundef} -option causes GCC to warn whenever it encounters an identifier which is -not a macro in an @samp{#if}. -@end itemize - -The preprocessor does not know anything about types in the language. -Therefore, @code{sizeof} operators are not recognized in @samp{#if}, and -neither are @code{enum} constants. They will be taken as identifiers -which are not macros, and replaced by zero. In the case of -@code{sizeof}, this is likely to cause the expression to be invalid. - -The preprocessor calculates the value of @var{expression}. It carries -out all calculations in the widest integer type known to the compiler; -on most machines supported by GCC this is 64 bits. This is not the same -rule as the compiler uses to calculate the value of a constant -expression, and may give different results in some cases. If the value -comes out to be nonzero, the @samp{#if} succeeds and the @var{controlled -text} is included; otherwise it is skipped. - -@node Defined -@subsection Defined - -@cindex @code{defined} -The special operator @code{defined} is used in @samp{#if} and -@samp{#elif} expressions to test whether a certain name is defined as a -macro. @code{defined @var{name}} and @code{defined (@var{name})} are -both expressions whose value is 1 if @var{name} is defined as a macro at -the current point in the program, and 0 otherwise. Thus, @code{@w{#if -defined MACRO}} is precisely equivalent to @code{@w{#ifdef MACRO}}. - -@code{defined} is useful when you wish to test more than one macro for -existence at once. For example, - -@smallexample -#if defined (__vax__) || defined (__ns16000__) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -would succeed if either of the names @code{__vax__} or -@code{__ns16000__} is defined as a macro. - -Conditionals written like this: - -@smallexample -#if defined BUFSIZE && BUFSIZE >= 1024 -@end smallexample - -@noindent -can generally be simplified to just @code{@w{#if BUFSIZE >= 1024}}, -since if @code{BUFSIZE} is not defined, it will be interpreted as having -the value zero. - -If the @code{defined} operator appears as a result of a macro expansion, -the C standard says the behavior is undefined. GNU cpp treats it as a -genuine @code{defined} operator and evaluates it normally. It will warn -wherever your code uses this feature if you use the command-line option -@option{-pedantic}, since other compilers may handle it differently. - -@node Else -@subsection Else - -@findex #else -The @samp{#else} directive can be added to a conditional to provide -alternative text to be used if the condition fails. This is what it -looks like: - -@smallexample -@group -#if @var{expression} -@var{text-if-true} -#else /* Not @var{expression} */ -@var{text-if-false} -#endif /* Not @var{expression} */ -@end group -@end smallexample - -@noindent -If @var{expression} is nonzero, the @var{text-if-true} is included and -the @var{text-if-false} is skipped. If @var{expression} is zero, the -opposite happens. - -You can use @samp{#else} with @samp{#ifdef} and @samp{#ifndef}, too. - -@node Elif -@subsection Elif - -@findex #elif -One common case of nested conditionals is used to check for more than two -possible alternatives. For example, you might have - -@smallexample -#if X == 1 -@dots{} -#else /* X != 1 */ -#if X == 2 -@dots{} -#else /* X != 2 */ -@dots{} -#endif /* X != 2 */ -#endif /* X != 1 */ -@end smallexample - -Another conditional directive, @samp{#elif}, allows this to be -abbreviated as follows: - -@smallexample -#if X == 1 -@dots{} -#elif X == 2 -@dots{} -#else /* X != 2 and X != 1*/ -@dots{} -#endif /* X != 2 and X != 1*/ -@end smallexample - -@samp{#elif} stands for ``else if''. Like @samp{#else}, it goes in the -middle of a conditional group and subdivides it; it does not require a -matching @samp{#endif} of its own. Like @samp{#if}, the @samp{#elif} -directive includes an expression to be tested. The text following the -@samp{#elif} is processed only if the original @samp{#if}-condition -failed and the @samp{#elif} condition succeeds. - -More than one @samp{#elif} can go in the same conditional group. Then -the text after each @samp{#elif} is processed only if the @samp{#elif} -condition succeeds after the original @samp{#if} and all previous -@samp{#elif} directives within it have failed. - -@samp{#else} is allowed after any number of @samp{#elif} directives, but -@samp{#elif} may not follow @samp{#else}. - -@node Deleted Code -@section Deleted Code -@cindex commenting out code - -If you replace or delete a part of the program but want to keep the old -code around for future reference, you often cannot simply comment it -out. Block comments do not nest, so the first comment inside the old -code will end the commenting-out. The probable result is a flood of -syntax errors. - -One way to avoid this problem is to use an always-false conditional -instead. For instance, put @code{#if 0} before the deleted code and -@code{#endif} after it. This works even if the code being turned -off contains conditionals, but they must be entire conditionals -(balanced @samp{#if} and @samp{#endif}). - -Some people use @code{#ifdef notdef} instead. This is risky, because -@code{notdef} might be accidentally defined as a macro, and then the -conditional would succeed. @code{#if 0} can be counted on to fail. - -Do not use @code{#if 0} for comments which are not C code. Use a real -comment, instead. The interior of @code{#if 0} must consist of complete -tokens; in particular, single-quote characters must balance. Comments -often contain unbalanced single-quote characters (known in English as -apostrophes). These confuse @code{#if 0}. They don't confuse -@samp{/*}. - -@node Diagnostics -@chapter Diagnostics -@cindex diagnostic -@cindex reporting errors -@cindex reporting warnings - -@findex #error -The directive @samp{#error} causes the preprocessor to report a fatal -error. The tokens forming the rest of the line following @samp{#error} -are used as the error message. - -You would use @samp{#error} inside of a conditional that detects a -combination of parameters which you know the program does not properly -support. For example, if you know that the program will not run -properly on a VAX, you might write - -@smallexample -@group -#ifdef __vax__ -#error "Won't work on VAXen. See comments at get_last_object." -#endif -@end group -@end smallexample - -If you have several configuration parameters that must be set up by -the installation in a consistent way, you can use conditionals to detect -an inconsistency and report it with @samp{#error}. For example, - -@smallexample -#if !defined(UNALIGNED_INT_ASM_OP) && defined(DWARF2_DEBUGGING_INFO) -#error "DWARF2_DEBUGGING_INFO requires UNALIGNED_INT_ASM_OP." -#endif -@end smallexample - -@findex #warning -The directive @samp{#warning} is like @samp{#error}, but causes the -preprocessor to issue a warning and continue preprocessing. The tokens -following @samp{#warning} are used as the warning message. - -You might use @samp{#warning} in obsolete header files, with a message -directing the user to the header file which should be used instead. - -Neither @samp{#error} nor @samp{#warning} macro-expands its argument. -Internal whitespace sequences are each replaced with a single space. -The line must consist of complete tokens. It is wisest to make the -argument of these directives be a single string constant; this avoids -problems with apostrophes and the like. - -@node Line Control -@chapter Line Control -@cindex line control - -The C preprocessor informs the C compiler of the location in your source -code where each token came from. Presently, this is just the file name -and line number. All the tokens resulting from macro expansion are -reported as having appeared on the line of the source file where the -outermost macro was used. We intend to be more accurate in the future. - -If you write a program which generates source code, such as the -@command{bison} parser generator, you may want to adjust the preprocessor's -notion of the current file name and line number by hand. Parts of the -output from @command{bison} are generated from scratch, other parts come -from a standard parser file. The rest are copied verbatim from -@command{bison}'s input. You would like compiler error messages and -symbolic debuggers to be able to refer to @code{bison}'s input file. - -@findex #line -@command{bison} or any such program can arrange this by writing -@samp{#line} directives into the output file. @samp{#line} is a -directive that specifies the original line number and source file name -for subsequent input in the current preprocessor input file. -@samp{#line} has three variants: - -@table @code -@item #line @var{linenum} -@var{linenum} is a non-negative decimal integer constant. It specifies -the line number which should be reported for the following line of -input. Subsequent lines are counted from @var{linenum}. - -@item #line @var{linenum} @var{filename} -@var{linenum} is the same as for the first form, and has the same -effect. In addition, @var{filename} is a string constant. The -following line and all subsequent lines are reported to come from the -file it specifies, until something else happens to change that. -@var{filename} is interpreted according to the normal rules for a string -constant: backslash escapes are interpreted. This is different from -@samp{#include}. - -Previous versions of CPP did not interpret escapes in @samp{#line}; -we have changed it because the standard requires they be interpreted, -and most other compilers do. - -@item #line @var{anything else} -@var{anything else} is checked for macro calls, which are expanded. -The result should match one of the above two forms. -@end table - -@samp{#line} directives alter the results of the @code{__FILE__} and -@code{__LINE__} predefined macros from that point on. @xref{Standard -Predefined Macros}. They do not have any effect on @samp{#include}'s -idea of the directory containing the current file. This is a change -from GCC 2.95. Previously, a file reading - -@smallexample -#line 1 "../src/gram.y" -#include "gram.h" -@end smallexample - -would search for @file{gram.h} in @file{../src}, then the @option{-I} -chain; the directory containing the physical source file would not be -searched. In GCC 3.0 and later, the @samp{#include} is not affected by -the presence of a @samp{#line} referring to a different directory. - -We made this change because the old behavior caused problems when -generated source files were transported between machines. For instance, -it is common practice to ship generated parsers with a source release, -so that people building the distribution do not need to have yacc or -Bison installed. These files frequently have @samp{#line} directives -referring to the directory tree of the system where the distribution was -created. If GCC tries to search for headers in those directories, the -build is likely to fail. - -The new behavior can cause failures too, if the generated file is not -in the same directory as its source and it attempts to include a header -which would be visible searching from the directory containing the -source file. However, this problem is easily solved with an additional -@option{-I} switch on the command line. The failures caused by the old -semantics could sometimes be corrected only by editing the generated -files, which is difficult and error-prone. - -@node Pragmas -@chapter Pragmas - -The @samp{#pragma} directive is the method specified by the C standard -for providing additional information to the compiler, beyond what is -conveyed in the language itself. Three forms of this directive -(commonly known as @dfn{pragmas}) are specified by the 1999 C standard. -A C compiler is free to attach any meaning it likes to other pragmas. - -GCC has historically preferred to use extensions to the syntax of the -language, such as @code{__attribute__}, for this purpose. However, GCC -does define a few pragmas of its own. These mostly have effects on the -entire translation unit or source file. - -In GCC version 3, all GNU-defined, supported pragmas have been given a -@code{GCC} prefix. This is in line with the @code{STDC} prefix on all -pragmas defined by C99. For backward compatibility, pragmas which were -recognized by previous versions are still recognized without the -@code{GCC} prefix, but that usage is deprecated. Some older pragmas are -deprecated in their entirety. They are not recognized with the -@code{GCC} prefix. @xref{Obsolete Features}. - -@cindex @code{_Pragma} -C99 introduces the @code{@w{_Pragma}} operator. This feature addresses a -major problem with @samp{#pragma}: being a directive, it cannot be -produced as the result of macro expansion. @code{@w{_Pragma}} is an -operator, much like @code{sizeof} or @code{defined}, and can be embedded -in a macro. - -Its syntax is @code{@w{_Pragma (@var{string-literal})}}, where -@var{string-literal} can be either a normal or wide-character string -literal. It is destringized, by replacing all @samp{\\} with a single -@samp{\} and all @samp{\"} with a @samp{"}. The result is then -processed as if it had appeared as the right hand side of a -@samp{#pragma} directive. For example, - -@smallexample -_Pragma ("GCC dependency \"parse.y\"") -@end smallexample - -@noindent -has the same effect as @code{#pragma GCC dependency "parse.y"}. The -same effect could be achieved using macros, for example - -@smallexample -#define DO_PRAGMA(x) _Pragma (#x) -DO_PRAGMA (GCC dependency "parse.y") -@end smallexample - -The standard is unclear on where a @code{_Pragma} operator can appear. -The preprocessor does not accept it within a preprocessing conditional -directive like @samp{#if}. To be safe, you are probably best keeping it -out of directives other than @samp{#define}, and putting it on a line of -its own. - -This manual documents the pragmas which are meaningful to the -preprocessor itself. Other pragmas are meaningful to the C or C++ -compilers. They are documented in the GCC manual. - -@ftable @code -@item #pragma GCC dependency -@code{#pragma GCC dependency} allows you to check the relative dates of -the current file and another file. If the other file is more recent than -the current file, a warning is issued. This is useful if the current -file is derived from the other file, and should be regenerated. The -other file is searched for using the normal include search path. -Optional trailing text can be used to give more information in the -warning message. - -@smallexample -#pragma GCC dependency "parse.y" -#pragma GCC dependency "/usr/include/time.h" rerun fixincludes -@end smallexample - -@item #pragma GCC poison -Sometimes, there is an identifier that you want to remove completely -from your program, and make sure that it never creeps back in. To -enforce this, you can @dfn{poison} the identifier with this pragma. -@code{#pragma GCC poison} is followed by a list of identifiers to -poison. If any of those identifiers appears anywhere in the source -after the directive, it is a hard error. For example, - -@smallexample -#pragma GCC poison printf sprintf fprintf -sprintf(some_string, "hello"); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -will produce an error. - -If a poisoned identifier appears as part of the expansion of a macro -which was defined before the identifier was poisoned, it will @emph{not} -cause an error. This lets you poison an identifier without worrying -about system headers defining macros that use it. - -For example, - -@smallexample -#define strrchr rindex -#pragma GCC poison rindex -strrchr(some_string, 'h'); -@end smallexample - -@noindent -will not produce an error. - -@item #pragma GCC system_header -This pragma takes no arguments. It causes the rest of the code in the -current file to be treated as if it came from a system header. -@xref{System Headers}. - -@end ftable - -@node Other Directives -@chapter Other Directives - -@findex #ident -@findex #sccs -The @samp{#ident} directive takes one argument, a string constant. On -some systems, that string constant is copied into a special segment of -the object file. On other systems, the directive is ignored. The -@samp{#sccs} directive is a synonym for @samp{#ident}. - -These directives are not part of the C standard, but they are not -official GNU extensions either. What historical information we have -been able to find, suggests they originated with System V@. - -@cindex null directive -The @dfn{null directive} consists of a @samp{#} followed by a newline, -with only whitespace (including comments) in between. A null directive -is understood as a preprocessing directive but has no effect on the -preprocessor output. The primary significance of the existence of the -null directive is that an input line consisting of just a @samp{#} will -produce no output, rather than a line of output containing just a -@samp{#}. Supposedly some old C programs contain such lines. - -@node Preprocessor Output -@chapter Preprocessor Output - -When the C preprocessor is used with the C, C++, or Objective-C -compilers, it is integrated into the compiler and communicates a stream -of binary tokens directly to the compiler's parser. However, it can -also be used in the more conventional standalone mode, where it produces -textual output. -@c FIXME: Document the library interface. - -@cindex output format -The output from the C preprocessor looks much like the input, except -that all preprocessing directive lines have been replaced with blank -lines and all comments with spaces. Long runs of blank lines are -discarded. - -The ISO standard specifies that it is implementation defined whether a -preprocessor preserves whitespace between tokens, or replaces it with -e.g.@: a single space. In GNU CPP, whitespace between tokens is collapsed -to become a single space, with the exception that the first token on a -non-directive line is preceded with sufficient spaces that it appears in -the same column in the preprocessed output that it appeared in the -original source file. This is so the output is easy to read. -@xref{Differences from previous versions}. CPP does not insert any -whitespace where there was none in the original source, except where -necessary to prevent an accidental token paste. - -@cindex linemarkers -Source file name and line number information is conveyed by lines -of the form - -@smallexample -# @var{linenum} @var{filename} @var{flags} -@end smallexample - -@noindent -These are called @dfn{linemarkers}. They are inserted as needed into -the output (but never within a string or character constant). They mean -that the following line originated in file @var{filename} at line -@var{linenum}. @var{filename} will never contain any non-printing -characters; they are replaced with octal escape sequences. - -After the file name comes zero or more flags, which are @samp{1}, -@samp{2}, @samp{3}, or @samp{4}. If there are multiple flags, spaces -separate them. Here is what the flags mean: - -@table @samp -@item 1 -This indicates the start of a new file. -@item 2 -This indicates returning to a file (after having included another file). -@item 3 -This indicates that the following text comes from a system header file, -so certain warnings should be suppressed. -@item 4 -This indicates that the following text should be treated as being -wrapped in an implicit @code{extern "C"} block. -@c maybe cross reference NO_IMPLICIT_EXTERN_C -@end table - -As an extension, the preprocessor accepts linemarkers in non-assembler -input files. They are treated like the corresponding @samp{#line} -directive, (@pxref{Line Control}), except that trailing flags are -permitted, and are interpreted with the meanings described above. If -multiple flags are given, they must be in ascending order. - -Some directives may be duplicated in the output of the preprocessor. -These are @samp{#ident} (always), @samp{#pragma} (only if the -preprocessor does not handle the pragma itself), and @samp{#define} and -@samp{#undef} (with certain debugging options). If this happens, the -@samp{#} of the directive will always be in the first column, and there -will be no space between the @samp{#} and the directive name. If macro -expansion happens to generate tokens which might be mistaken for a -duplicated directive, a space will be inserted between the @samp{#} and -the directive name. - -@node Traditional Mode -@chapter Traditional Mode - -Traditional (pre-standard) C preprocessing is rather different from -the preprocessing specified by the standard. When GCC is given the -@option{-traditional-cpp} option, it attempts to emulate a traditional -preprocessor. - -GCC versions 3.2 and later only support traditional mode semantics in -the preprocessor, and not in the compiler front ends. This chapter -outlines the traditional preprocessor semantics we implemented. - -The implementation does not correspond precisely to the behavior of -earlier versions of GCC, nor to any true traditional preprocessor. -After all, inconsistencies among traditional implementations were a -major motivation for C standardization. However, we intend that it -should be compatible with true traditional preprocessors in all ways -that actually matter. - -@menu -* Traditional lexical analysis:: -* Traditional macros:: -* Traditional miscellany:: -* Traditional warnings:: -@end menu - -@node Traditional lexical analysis -@section Traditional lexical analysis - -The traditional preprocessor does not decompose its input into tokens -the same way a standards-conforming preprocessor does. The input is -simply treated as a stream of text with minimal internal form. - -This implementation does not treat trigraphs (@pxref{trigraphs}) -specially since they were an invention of the standards committee. It -handles arbitrarily-positioned escaped newlines properly and splices -the lines as you would expect; many traditional preprocessors did not -do this. - -The form of horizontal whitespace in the input file is preserved in -the output. In particular, hard tabs remain hard tabs. This can be -useful if, for example, you are preprocessing a Makefile. - -Traditional CPP only recognizes C-style block comments, and treats the -@samp{/*} sequence as introducing a comment only if it lies outside -quoted text. Quoted text is introduced by the usual single and double -quotes, and also by an initial @samp{<} in a @code{#include} -directive. - -Traditionally, comments are completely removed and are not replaced -with a space. Since a traditional compiler does its own tokenization -of the output of the preprocessor, this means that comments can -effectively be used as token paste operators. However, comments -behave like separators for text handled by the preprocessor itself, -since it doesn't re-lex its input. For example, in - -@smallexample -#if foo/**/bar -@end smallexample - -@noindent -@samp{foo} and @samp{bar} are distinct identifiers and expanded -separately if they happen to be macros. In other words, this -directive is equivalent to - -@smallexample -#if foo bar -@end smallexample - -@noindent -rather than - -@smallexample -#if foobar -@end smallexample - -Generally speaking, in traditional mode an opening quote need not have -a matching closing quote. In particular, a macro may be defined with -replacement text that contains an unmatched quote. Of course, if you -attempt to compile preprocessed output containing an unmatched quote -you will get a syntax error. - -However, all preprocessing directives other than @code{#define} -require matching quotes. For example: - -@smallexample -#define m This macro's fine and has an unmatched quote -"/* This is not a comment. */ -/* @r{This is a comment. The following #include directive - is ill-formed.} */ -#include <stdio.h -@end smallexample - -Just as for the ISO preprocessor, what would be a closing quote can be -escaped with a backslash to prevent the quoted text from closing. - -@node Traditional macros -@section Traditional macros - -The major difference between traditional and ISO macros is that the -former expand to text rather than to a token sequence. CPP removes -all leading and trailing horizontal whitespace from a macro's -replacement text before storing it, but preserves the form of internal -whitespace. - -One consequence is that it is legitimate for the replacement text to -contain an unmatched quote (@pxref{Traditional lexical analysis}). An -unclosed string or character constant continues into the text -following the macro call. Similarly, the text at the end of a macro's -expansion can run together with the text after the macro invocation to -produce a single token. - -Normally comments are removed from the replacement text after the -macro is expanded, but if the @option{-CC} option is passed on the -command line comments are preserved. (In fact, the current -implementation removes comments even before saving the macro -replacement text, but it careful to do it in such a way that the -observed effect is identical even in the function-like macro case.) - -The ISO stringification operator @samp{#} and token paste operator -@samp{##} have no special meaning. As explained later, an effect -similar to these operators can be obtained in a different way. Macro -names that are embedded in quotes, either from the main file or after -macro replacement, do not expand. - -CPP replaces an unquoted object-like macro name with its replacement -text, and then rescans it for further macros to replace. Unlike -standard macro expansion, traditional macro expansion has no provision -to prevent recursion. If an object-like macro appears unquoted in its -replacement text, it will be replaced again during the rescan pass, -and so on @emph{ad infinitum}. GCC detects when it is expanding -recursive macros, emits an error message, and continues after the -offending macro invocation. - -@smallexample -#define PLUS + -#define INC(x) PLUS+x -INC(foo); - @expansion{} ++foo; -@end smallexample - -Function-like macros are similar in form but quite different in -behavior to their ISO counterparts. Their arguments are contained -within parentheses, are comma-separated, and can cross physical lines. -Commas within nested parentheses are not treated as argument -separators. Similarly, a quote in an argument cannot be left -unclosed; a following comma or parenthesis that comes before the -closing quote is treated like any other character. There is no -facility for handling variadic macros. - -This implementation removes all comments from macro arguments, unless -the @option{-C} option is given. The form of all other horizontal -whitespace in arguments is preserved, including leading and trailing -whitespace. In particular - -@smallexample -f( ) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -is treated as an invocation of the macro @samp{f} with a single -argument consisting of a single space. If you want to invoke a -function-like macro that takes no arguments, you must not leave any -whitespace between the parentheses. - -If a macro argument crosses a new line, the new line is replaced with -a space when forming the argument. If the previous line contained an -unterminated quote, the following line inherits the quoted state. - -Traditional preprocessors replace parameters in the replacement text -with their arguments regardless of whether the parameters are within -quotes or not. This provides a way to stringize arguments. For -example - -@smallexample -#define str(x) "x" -str(/* @r{A comment} */some text ) - @expansion{} "some text " -@end smallexample - -@noindent -Note that the comment is removed, but that the trailing space is -preserved. Here is an example of using a comment to effect token -pasting. - -@smallexample -#define suffix(x) foo_/**/x -suffix(bar) - @expansion{} foo_bar -@end smallexample - -@node Traditional miscellany -@section Traditional miscellany - -Here are some things to be aware of when using the traditional -preprocessor. - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Preprocessing directives are recognized only when their leading -@samp{#} appears in the first column. There can be no whitespace -between the beginning of the line and the @samp{#}, but whitespace can -follow the @samp{#}. - -@item -A true traditional C preprocessor does not recognize @samp{#error} or -@samp{#pragma}, and may not recognize @samp{#elif}. CPP supports all -the directives in traditional mode that it supports in ISO mode, -including extensions, with the exception that the effects of -@samp{#pragma GCC poison} are undefined. - -@item -__STDC__ is not defined. - -@item -If you use digraphs the behavior is undefined. - -@item -If a line that looks like a directive appears within macro arguments, -the behavior is undefined. - -@end itemize - -@node Traditional warnings -@section Traditional warnings -You can request warnings about features that did not exist, or worked -differently, in traditional C with the @option{-Wtraditional} option. -GCC does not warn about features of ISO C which you must use when you -are using a conforming compiler, such as the @samp{#} and @samp{##} -operators. - -Presently @option{-Wtraditional} warns about: - -@itemize @bullet -@item -Macro parameters that appear within string literals in the macro body. -In traditional C macro replacement takes place within string literals, -but does not in ISO C@. - -@item -In traditional C, some preprocessor directives did not exist. -Traditional preprocessors would only consider a line to be a directive -if the @samp{#} appeared in column 1 on the line. Therefore -@option{-Wtraditional} warns about directives that traditional C -understands but would ignore because the @samp{#} does not appear as the -first character on the line. It also suggests you hide directives like -@samp{#pragma} not understood by traditional C by indenting them. Some -traditional implementations would not recognize @samp{#elif}, so it -suggests avoiding it altogether. - -@item -A function-like macro that appears without an argument list. In some -traditional preprocessors this was an error. In ISO C it merely means -that the macro is not expanded. - -@item -The unary plus operator. This did not exist in traditional C@. - -@item -The @samp{U} and @samp{LL} integer constant suffixes, which were not -available in traditional C@. (Traditional C does support the @samp{L} -suffix for simple long integer constants.) You are not warned about -uses of these suffixes in macros defined in system headers. For -instance, @code{UINT_MAX} may well be defined as @code{4294967295U}, but -you will not be warned if you use @code{UINT_MAX}. - -You can usually avoid the warning, and the related warning about -constants which are so large that they are unsigned, by writing the -integer constant in question in hexadecimal, with no U suffix. Take -care, though, because this gives the wrong result in exotic cases. -@end itemize - -@node Implementation Details -@chapter Implementation Details - -Here we document details of how the preprocessor's implementation -affects its user-visible behavior. You should try to avoid undue -reliance on behavior described here, as it is possible that it will -change subtly in future implementations. - -Also documented here are obsolete features and changes from previous -versions of CPP@. - -@menu -* Implementation-defined behavior:: -* Implementation limits:: -* Obsolete Features:: -* Differences from previous versions:: -@end menu - -@node Implementation-defined behavior -@section Implementation-defined behavior -@cindex implementation-defined behavior - -This is how CPP behaves in all the cases which the C standard -describes as @dfn{implementation-defined}. This term means that the -implementation is free to do what it likes, but must document its choice -and stick to it. -@c FIXME: Check the C++ standard for more implementation-defined stuff. - -@itemize @bullet -@need 1000 -@item The mapping of physical source file multi-byte characters to the -execution character set. - -Currently, CPP requires its input to be ASCII or UTF-8. The execution -character set may be controlled by the user, with the -@option{-fexec-charset} and @option{-fwide-exec-charset} options. - -@item Identifier characters. -@anchor{Identifier characters} - -The C and C++ standards allow identifiers to be composed of @samp{_} -and the alphanumeric characters. C++ and C99 also allow universal -character names, and C99 further permits implementation-defined -characters. GCC currently only permits universal character names if -@option{-fextended-identifiers} is used, because the implementation of -universal character names in identifiers is experimental. - -GCC allows the @samp{$} character in identifiers as an extension for -most targets. This is true regardless of the @option{std=} switch, -since this extension cannot conflict with standards-conforming -programs. When preprocessing assembler, however, dollars are not -identifier characters by default. - -Currently the targets that by default do not permit @samp{$} are AVR, -IP2K, MMIX, MIPS Irix 3, ARM aout, and PowerPC targets for the AIX and -BeOS operating systems. - -You can override the default with @option{-fdollars-in-identifiers} or -@option{fno-dollars-in-identifiers}. @xref{fdollars-in-identifiers}. - -@item Non-empty sequences of whitespace characters. - -In textual output, each whitespace sequence is collapsed to a single -space. For aesthetic reasons, the first token on each non-directive -line of output is preceded with sufficient spaces that it appears in the -same column as it did in the original source file. - -@item The numeric value of character constants in preprocessor expressions. - -The preprocessor and compiler interpret character constants in the -same way; i.e.@: escape sequences such as @samp{\a} are given the -values they would have on the target machine. - -The compiler values a multi-character character constant a character -at a time, shifting the previous value left by the number of bits per -target character, and then or-ing in the bit-pattern of the new -character truncated to the width of a target character. The final -bit-pattern is given type @code{int}, and is therefore signed, -regardless of whether single characters are signed or not (a slight -change from versions 3.1 and earlier of GCC)@. If there are more -characters in the constant than would fit in the target @code{int} the -compiler issues a warning, and the excess leading characters are -ignored. - -For example, @code{'ab'} for a target with an 8-bit @code{char} would be -interpreted as @w{@samp{(int) ((unsigned char) 'a' * 256 + (unsigned char) -'b')}}, and @code{'\234a'} as @w{@samp{(int) ((unsigned char) '\234' * -256 + (unsigned char) 'a')}}. - -@item Source file inclusion. - -For a discussion on how the preprocessor locates header files, -@ref{Include Operation}. - -@item Interpretation of the filename resulting from a macro-expanded -@samp{#include} directive. - -@xref{Computed Includes}. - -@item Treatment of a @samp{#pragma} directive that after macro-expansion -results in a standard pragma. - -No macro expansion occurs on any @samp{#pragma} directive line, so the -question does not arise. - -Note that GCC does not yet implement any of the standard -pragmas. - -@end itemize - -@node Implementation limits -@section Implementation limits -@cindex implementation limits - -CPP has a small number of internal limits. This section lists the -limits which the C standard requires to be no lower than some minimum, -and all the others known. It is intended that there should be as few limits -as possible. If you encounter an undocumented or inconvenient limit, -please report that as a bug. @xref{Bugs, , Reporting Bugs, gcc, Using -the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)}. - -Where we say something is limited @dfn{only by available memory}, that -means that internal data structures impose no intrinsic limit, and space -is allocated with @code{malloc} or equivalent. The actual limit will -therefore depend on many things, such as the size of other things -allocated by the compiler at the same time, the amount of memory -consumed by other processes on the same computer, etc. - -@itemize @bullet - -@item Nesting levels of @samp{#include} files. - -We impose an arbitrary limit of 200 levels, to avoid runaway recursion. -The standard requires at least 15 levels. - -@item Nesting levels of conditional inclusion. - -The C standard mandates this be at least 63. CPP is limited only by -available memory. - -@item Levels of parenthesized expressions within a full expression. - -The C standard requires this to be at least 63. In preprocessor -conditional expressions, it is limited only by available memory. - -@item Significant initial characters in an identifier or macro name. - -The preprocessor treats all characters as significant. The C standard -requires only that the first 63 be significant. - -@item Number of macros simultaneously defined in a single translation unit. - -The standard requires at least 4095 be possible. CPP is limited only -by available memory. - -@item Number of parameters in a macro definition and arguments in a macro call. - -We allow @code{USHRT_MAX}, which is no smaller than 65,535. The minimum -required by the standard is 127. - -@item Number of characters on a logical source line. - -The C standard requires a minimum of 4096 be permitted. CPP places -no limits on this, but you may get incorrect column numbers reported in -diagnostics for lines longer than 65,535 characters. - -@item Maximum size of a source file. - -The standard does not specify any lower limit on the maximum size of a -source file. GNU cpp maps files into memory, so it is limited by the -available address space. This is generally at least two gigabytes. -Depending on the operating system, the size of physical memory may or -may not be a limitation. - -@end itemize - -@node Obsolete Features -@section Obsolete Features - -CPP has a number of features which are present mainly for -compatibility with older programs. We discourage their use in new code. -In some cases, we plan to remove the feature in a future version of GCC@. - -@menu -* Assertions:: -* Obsolete once-only headers:: -@end menu - -@node Assertions -@subsection Assertions -@cindex assertions - -@dfn{Assertions} are a deprecated alternative to macros in writing -conditionals to test what sort of computer or system the compiled -program will run on. Assertions are usually predefined, but you can -define them with preprocessing directives or command-line options. - -Assertions were intended to provide a more systematic way to describe -the compiler's target system. However, in practice they are just as -unpredictable as the system-specific predefined macros. In addition, they -are not part of any standard, and only a few compilers support them. -Therefore, the use of assertions is @strong{less} portable than the use -of system-specific predefined macros. We recommend you do not use them at -all. - -@cindex predicates -An assertion looks like this: - -@smallexample -#@var{predicate} (@var{answer}) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -@var{predicate} must be a single identifier. @var{answer} can be any -sequence of tokens; all characters are significant except for leading -and trailing whitespace, and differences in internal whitespace -sequences are ignored. (This is similar to the rules governing macro -redefinition.) Thus, @code{(x + y)} is different from @code{(x+y)} but -equivalent to @code{@w{( x + y )}}. Parentheses do not nest inside an -answer. - -@cindex testing predicates -To test an assertion, you write it in an @samp{#if}. For example, this -conditional succeeds if either @code{vax} or @code{ns16000} has been -asserted as an answer for @code{machine}. - -@smallexample -#if #machine (vax) || #machine (ns16000) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -You can test whether @emph{any} answer is asserted for a predicate by -omitting the answer in the conditional: - -@smallexample -#if #machine -@end smallexample - -@findex #assert -Assertions are made with the @samp{#assert} directive. Its sole -argument is the assertion to make, without the leading @samp{#} that -identifies assertions in conditionals. - -@smallexample -#assert @var{predicate} (@var{answer}) -@end smallexample - -@noindent -You may make several assertions with the same predicate and different -answers. Subsequent assertions do not override previous ones for the -same predicate. All the answers for any given predicate are -simultaneously true. - -@cindex assertions, canceling -@findex #unassert -Assertions can be canceled with the @samp{#unassert} directive. It -has the same syntax as @samp{#assert}. In that form it cancels only the -answer which was specified on the @samp{#unassert} line; other answers -for that predicate remain true. You can cancel an entire predicate by -leaving out the answer: - -@smallexample -#unassert @var{predicate} -@end smallexample - -@noindent -In either form, if no such assertion has been made, @samp{#unassert} has -no effect. - -You can also make or cancel assertions using command line options. -@xref{Invocation}. - -@node Obsolete once-only headers -@subsection Obsolete once-only headers - -CPP supports two more ways of indicating that a header file should be -read only once. Neither one is as portable as a wrapper @samp{#ifndef}, -and we recommend you do not use them in new programs. - -@findex #import -In the Objective-C language, there is a variant of @samp{#include} -called @samp{#import} which includes a file, but does so at most once. -If you use @samp{#import} instead of @samp{#include}, then you don't -need the conditionals inside the header file to prevent multiple -inclusion of the contents. GCC permits the use of @samp{#import} in C -and C++ as well as Objective-C@. However, it is not in standard C or C++ -and should therefore not be used by portable programs. - -@samp{#import} is not a well designed feature. It requires the users of -a header file to know that it should only be included once. It is much -better for the header file's implementor to write the file so that users -don't need to know this. Using a wrapper @samp{#ifndef} accomplishes -this goal. - -In the present implementation, a single use of @samp{#import} will -prevent the file from ever being read again, by either @samp{#import} or -@samp{#include}. You should not rely on this; do not use both -@samp{#import} and @samp{#include} to refer to the same header file. - -Another way to prevent a header file from being included more than once -is with the @samp{#pragma once} directive. If @samp{#pragma once} is -seen when scanning a header file, that file will never be read again, no -matter what. - -@samp{#pragma once} does not have the problems that @samp{#import} does, -but it is not recognized by all preprocessors, so you cannot rely on it -in a portable program. - -@node Differences from previous versions -@section Differences from previous versions -@cindex differences from previous versions - -This section details behavior which has changed from previous versions -of CPP@. We do not plan to change it again in the near future, but -we do not promise not to, either. - -The ``previous versions'' discussed here are 2.95 and before. The -behavior of GCC 3.0 is mostly the same as the behavior of the widely -used 2.96 and 2.97 development snapshots. Where there are differences, -they generally represent bugs in the snapshots. - -@itemize @bullet - -@item -I- deprecated - -This option has been deprecated in 4.0. @option{-iquote} is meant to -replace the need for this option. - -@item Order of evaluation of @samp{#} and @samp{##} operators - -The standard does not specify the order of evaluation of a chain of -@samp{##} operators, nor whether @samp{#} is evaluated before, after, or -at the same time as @samp{##}. You should therefore not write any code -which depends on any specific ordering. It is possible to guarantee an -ordering, if you need one, by suitable use of nested macros. - -An example of where this might matter is pasting the arguments @samp{1}, -@samp{e} and @samp{-2}. This would be fine for left-to-right pasting, -but right-to-left pasting would produce an invalid token @samp{e-2}. - -GCC 3.0 evaluates @samp{#} and @samp{##} at the same time and strictly -left to right. Older versions evaluated all @samp{#} operators first, -then all @samp{##} operators, in an unreliable order. - -@item The form of whitespace between tokens in preprocessor output - -@xref{Preprocessor Output}, for the current textual format. This is -also the format used by stringification. Normally, the preprocessor -communicates tokens directly to the compiler's parser, and whitespace -does not come up at all. - -Older versions of GCC preserved all whitespace provided by the user and -inserted lots more whitespace of their own, because they could not -accurately predict when extra spaces were needed to prevent accidental -token pasting. - -@item Optional argument when invoking rest argument macros - -As an extension, GCC permits you to omit the variable arguments entirely -when you use a variable argument macro. This is forbidden by the 1999 C -standard, and will provoke a pedantic warning with GCC 3.0. Previous -versions accepted it silently. - -@item @samp{##} swallowing preceding text in rest argument macros - -Formerly, in a macro expansion, if @samp{##} appeared before a variable -arguments parameter, and the set of tokens specified for that argument -in the macro invocation was empty, previous versions of CPP would -back up and remove the preceding sequence of non-whitespace characters -(@strong{not} the preceding token). This extension is in direct -conflict with the 1999 C standard and has been drastically pared back. - -In the current version of the preprocessor, if @samp{##} appears between -a comma and a variable arguments parameter, and the variable argument is -omitted entirely, the comma will be removed from the expansion. If the -variable argument is empty, or the token before @samp{##} is not a -comma, then @samp{##} behaves as a normal token paste. - -@item @samp{#line} and @samp{#include} - -The @samp{#line} directive used to change GCC's notion of the -``directory containing the current file'', used by @samp{#include} with -a double-quoted header file name. In 3.0 and later, it does not. -@xref{Line Control}, for further explanation. - -@item Syntax of @samp{#line} - -In GCC 2.95 and previous, the string constant argument to @samp{#line} -was treated the same way as the argument to @samp{#include}: backslash -escapes were not honored, and the string ended at the second @samp{"}. -This is not compliant with the C standard. In GCC 3.0, an attempt was -made to correct the behavior, so that the string was treated as a real -string constant, but it turned out to be buggy. In 3.1, the bugs have -been fixed. (We are not fixing the bugs in 3.0 because they affect -relatively few people and the fix is quite invasive.) - -@end itemize - -@node Invocation -@chapter Invocation -@cindex invocation -@cindex command line - -Most often when you use the C preprocessor you will not have to invoke it -explicitly: the C compiler will do so automatically. However, the -preprocessor is sometimes useful on its own. All the options listed -here are also acceptable to the C compiler and have the same meaning, -except that the C compiler has different rules for specifying the output -file. - -@emph{Note:} Whether you use the preprocessor by way of @command{gcc} -or @command{cpp}, the @dfn{compiler driver} is run first. This -program's purpose is to translate your command into invocations of the -programs that do the actual work. Their command line interfaces are -similar but not identical to the documented interface, and may change -without notice. - -@ignore -@c man begin SYNOPSIS -cpp [@option{-D}@var{macro}[=@var{defn}]@dots{}] [@option{-U}@var{macro}] - [@option{-I}@var{dir}@dots{}] [@option{-iquote}@var{dir}@dots{}] - [@option{-W}@var{warn}@dots{}] - [@option{-M}|@option{-MM}] [@option{-MG}] [@option{-MF} @var{filename}] - [@option{-MP}] [@option{-MQ} @var{target}@dots{}] - [@option{-MT} @var{target}@dots{}] - [@option{-P}] [@option{-fno-working-directory}] - [@option{-x} @var{language}] [@option{-std=}@var{standard}] - @var{infile} @var{outfile} - -Only the most useful options are listed here; see below for the remainder. -@c man end -@c man begin SEEALSO -gpl(7), gfdl(7), fsf-funding(7), -gcc(1), as(1), ld(1), and the Info entries for @file{cpp}, @file{gcc}, and -@file{binutils}. -@c man end -@end ignore - -@c man begin OPTIONS -The C preprocessor expects two file names as arguments, @var{infile} and -@var{outfile}. The preprocessor reads @var{infile} together with any -other files it specifies with @samp{#include}. All the output generated -by the combined input files is written in @var{outfile}. - -Either @var{infile} or @var{outfile} may be @option{-}, which as -@var{infile} means to read from standard input and as @var{outfile} -means to write to standard output. Also, if either file is omitted, it -means the same as if @option{-} had been specified for that file. - -Unless otherwise noted, or the option ends in @samp{=}, all options -which take an argument may have that argument appear either immediately -after the option, or with a space between option and argument: -@option{-Ifoo} and @option{-I foo} have the same effect. - -@cindex grouping options -@cindex options, grouping -Many options have multi-letter names; therefore multiple single-letter -options may @emph{not} be grouped: @option{-dM} is very different from -@w{@samp{-d -M}}. - -@cindex options -@include cppopts.texi -@c man end - -@node Environment Variables -@chapter Environment Variables -@cindex environment variables -@c man begin ENVIRONMENT - -This section describes the environment variables that affect how CPP -operates. You can use them to specify directories or prefixes to use -when searching for include files, or to control dependency output. - -Note that you can also specify places to search using options such as -@option{-I}, and control dependency output with options like -@option{-M} (@pxref{Invocation}). These take precedence over -environment variables, which in turn take precedence over the -configuration of GCC@. - -@include cppenv.texi -@c man end - -@page -@include fdl.texi - -@page -@node Index of Directives -@unnumbered Index of Directives -@printindex fn - -@node Option Index -@unnumbered Option Index -@noindent -CPP's command line options and environment variables are indexed here -without any initial @samp{-} or @samp{--}. -@printindex op - -@page -@node Concept Index -@unnumbered Concept Index -@printindex cp - -@bye |